The programmes included under the Green Revolution or New Agricultural Strategy are: 1. The High Yielding Varieties Programme 2. Multiple Cropping Programme 3. Integrated Development of Dry Areas 4. Plant Protection Measures 5. Increased Use of Fertilizer 6. New Irrigation Concept.
While both the IADP and IAAP were concerned with promotion of intensive agriculture, they operated within the limitation set by existing crop varieties which had relatively low response to fertilizers. Further, the two unprecedented droughts in 1965-66 and 1966-67, and the biological revolution brought about by the introduction of new strains of various foodgrains, necessitated the embankment on a new strategy of agricultural development in 1966-67.
The key note of this strategy is the application of science and technology for increasing yield per hectare. This strategy, known as New Agricultural Strategy or Green Revolution (because it created greener looking fields) is based on the extension of high yielding varieties responsive to heavy doses of fertilizers and the package of improved practices in selected areas with assured rainfall or irrigation facilities.
1. The High Yielding Varieties Programme:
This programme was launched in the kharif season of 1966 in selected areas having assured rainfall. It envisaged popularisation of the high yielding varieties of paddy, wheat, maize, jowar and bajra over fairly large areas.
The programme covered 1.99 million hectares under high-yielding varieties in 1966-67. The coverage increased to 2,710 million hectares in 1974-75. Area under high yielding varieties increased to 62.42 million hectares in 1987-88.
The achievement of H.Y.V.P. crop wise has been of the following order:
The H.Y.V.P. has been taken up for five crops. Among these the most striking success has been achieved in wheat. The average yield of wheat has been 1,300 kgs. per hectare. With high yielding strains (Kalyan Sona, Sonalika, Safed Lerma, Choti Lerma; Sharbati Sonata and Triple Dwarf varieties like Hira and Moti), the yields have been exceptionally high (over 2,000 kg), very high (1,801-2,200 kg) and high (No. 1,11,800 kg) in Punjab, Haryana, Western U.P. Plains, and northern parts of Gujarat plain.
Elsewhere, the yields have been low. The major factor which irrigated the wheat revolution in Sutlej-Yamuna plain was the introduction of high yielding nitrogen-responsive dwarf strains of wheat from Mexico- as well as the human element i.e. the efficient and innovation-minded group of farmers familiar with irrigated wheat culture.
Technical Characteristics of H.Y.V.P.:
One of the basic pre-requisite for the cultivation of H.Y.V. seeds is that the fields in which these are sown should have proper drainage facilities. While irrigation is a pre-condition, controlled irrigation seems to be an essential factor for the successful cultivation of these varieties.
These varieties are said to be highly susceptible to pests, particularly to the gallfly and to diseases such as bacterial flight. Even slightly abnormal seasonal conditions are said to be favourable for the growth of such pests and diseases.
All varieties are short duration varieties (ranging from 110 to 140 days in different parts). This necessitates the proper synchronization with the existing cropping pattern in the given area so as not to seriously disturb the pattern of cultivation. The high yielding paddy varieties possess poor dormancy.
One of the most crucial characteristics of these high-yielding varieties is that they are all dwarf varieties. It is this feature which is most significant and which had made these varieties responsive to higher doses of fertilizer application, e.g. as against the average dosage of 10 N per hectare for paddy, 5 N for bajra and 10 N for jowar, the H.Y.V. requires 40 to 50 N, 20 N and 30 N per acre respectively.
The H.Y.V. are coarse and, hence, the market price is invariably lower than the other medium and finer varieties. Besides, the cooking quality of some of these is said to be poor.
The response to these varieties is reported to be very high under irrigated conditions and, therefore, cultivation of these can be undertaken in irrigated areas.
The production and distribution of certified and quality seeds has increased. Distribution of certified seeds was 60 lakh Qtls in 1992-93. It increased to about 192 lakh Qtls in 2006-07. It also noticed that share of private sector in seed production is increasing whereas that of public sector is decreasing. Share of private sector in seed production was 58 per cent in 2006.
The table given below shows the production and distribution of seeds:
2. Multiple Cropping Programme:
This programme envisages that more crops per year per hectare are raised. The total cropped area in 1966-67 was 157 m. hectares of this double-cropped area was only 20 m. hectares; the gross area irrigated was about 33 m. hectares, but only about 15 per cent of the total irrigated area was under double-cropping.
Besides, there was found hardly any difference in intensity of cropping in irrigated and unirrigated areas. The cropping intensity of agriculture was much low (115 to 118 per cent) as compared to that in similar conditions in Pakistan (137 per cent) Japan (120 per cent) South Korea (15 per cent) and Taiwan (180 per cent). Low intensity of irrigation in certain areas and the use of long duration varieties have been the two principal limiting factors in the adoption of multiple cropping.
Opportunities have been available with the introduction of short duration high yielding varieties, to grow 2 or even 3 crops per year in fully irrigated areas and 2 crops in partially irrigated areas, where there used to be only one crop. In irrigated areas, the cropping intensity could also be raised to 200 to 300 per cent.
The basic idea of this strategy has been the development in irrigation- increased use of fertilizers; proper adoption of water management practices; adoption of late sowing and short duration varieties; adjustment in the time of sowing, planting and harvesting; introduction of new crops in place or along with traditional crops; and selection of proper rotations can help in raising additional crops both in mono-cropped and double cropped areas.
Taking these facts into consideration the Multiple Cropping Programme was launched during 1967-68. The target then was put at 3 m. hectares over which multiple-cropping was to be done, it was noted that short duration varieties of moong, potato, cowpea, maize, bajra, toria, dwarf rai, and fodder could be grown profitably as the third crop; and according to the rainfall pattern in different areas, the rotations might include rice, hybrid, maize, sorghum, wheat, cotton, groundnut, potato, sugarcane, fodder and legumes.
An increase in total cropped area is the basic indicator of progress in multiple cropping programme. The total cropped area in 1970-71 was 166 million hectares including the area sown more than once which was 25 million hectares. Gross cropped area increased to about 187 million hectares in 1996-97 and the area sown more than once has increased to about 45 million hectares in 1996-97.
It is very important to mention that since 1980, there has been no increase in net cropped area, only multiple cropped area is increasing. This has contributed towards increase in gross cropped area. Cropping intensity was only 111:1 in 1950-51. The cropping intensity has increased to 123.4 in 1980-81 and further to 132.2 in 1996-97.
Multiple cropping programme has special significance for small farmers, who have greater labour resources to work on a unit of land. Intensive multiple cultivation is bound to result in better utilization of family labour and bullock-power resources. Besides increasing the production of foodgrains multiple cropping also results in increasing the income potential of small holdings, improving human nutrition, and improving animal husbandry and, thus, leading to overall rural prosperity.
The four major scientific ingredients of a multiple cropping system are:
(i) Short-duration and photo-insensitive varieties;
(ii) Agronomic practices which can maximise the genetic potential for yield;
(iii) Co-ordinated strategy of pest and disease control, and
(iv) Appropriate post harvest technology.
The use of these ingredients is essential for the success of the programme. Therefore:
(a) Suitable crop sequence for each agro climatic zone should first be determined and the meteorological and soil data analysed;
(b) Controlled water use and minor irrigation works should be made available;
(c) Labour saving devices (i.e., agricultural machines) need be used increasingly,
(d) Timely and adequate supplies of inputs is a must;
(e) Constant research to evolve more suitable varieties; and analysis of field data and problems are other inevitable requirements.
It would be noted that multiple cropping programme is a highly technical programme and needs a scientific approach and well thought out decisions on the part of the cultivators. Planned carefully, supported adequately and implemented properly the programmes may go a long way in achieving the targets of self-sufficiency in food productions.
3. Integrated Development of Dry Areas:
An intensive programme known as Integrated Dry Land Agricultural Development, was launched in 1970-71, initially in pilot projects (in Hyderabad, Rajkot, Hissar, Indore, Sholapur, Bellary, Jodhpur, Tirunelvelly and Jhansi). Later on, it was introduced in 15 more pilot projects during 1971-74 in Anantpur, Palamau, Kutch, Mohindragarh, Jammu, Rewa, Akola, Hebbel, Bijapur, Udaipur, Bhilwara, Salem, Ghazipur, Agra and Bhubaneswar.
During 1977-78, 24 pilot schemes were in progress. Each project covered an additional area of 800 hectares. The programmes include cultivation of drought resistant, short duration and high yielding varieties of crops with package of practices, land development including land shaping and land levelling, construction of wells, bunds and bundles and distribution of improved farm machinery, seeds, fertilizers and pesticides.
The purpose of this programme has been to develop and extend techniques and undertake measures which are capable of benefiting dry lands. In the country as a whole there are about 128 districts which have low medium rainfall (between 375 mm. and 1,125 mm) annually with limited irrigation facilities. Out of these, 91 districts spread out mainly in A.P., M.P., U.P., Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and parts of Haryana, constitute typical dry land tracts.
The total net area sown in these areas is estimated at 42 m. hectares of which about 5 m. hectares are irrigated. In this tract, the very high intensity dry farming areas (with rainfall varying 575 mm. to 750 mm. and irrigated area below 10 per cent of the cropped area) mainly cover central parts of Rajasthan, Saurashtra region of Gujarat and rain shadow region of Western Ghats of Maharashtra and Karnataka. It is these dry land farming areas which hold good promise of responding to a new package of technology.
The development efforts under this programme involve:
(i) Land consolidation and soil conservation;
(ii) Improvements in tillage leading to better soil texture and root penetration;
(iii) Addition of plant nutrients through deep placement of fertilizers;
(iv) Adoption of water harvesting procedures resulting in storing of water and moisture as much as possible for the use of crops;
(v) Use of improved seeds;
(vi) Cultivation of drought-resistant and short duration crops;
(vii) Popularisation of crops like soyabean, wheat, maize, castor, safflower, sunflower, cotton, cashewnuts, oil palm, dates, grasses;
(viii) Popularisation of multiple cropping programmes; and
(ix) Genetic upgrading of the non-descript cattle population. Besides, a systematic survey and development of ground water resources is undertaken to further increase the income potential of agriculture in dry areas.
The essential pre-requisite is to encourage land levelling, land shaping, water harvesting and soil conservation practices by way of suitable subsidies and loans to farmers with less than 4 hectares holding. The schemes take care of infra-structure requirements like use of improved seeds, implements, foliar spraying of urea and pesticides sprinkler irrigation demonstrations and suitable animal husbandry programmes.
4. Plant Protection Measures:
Plant protection forms an important part of increased production. Plant protection programme includes seed treatment, intensive aerial and ground spraying, weed control and rodent control. The total area benefited increased from 16.6 m. hectares in 1965-66 to 48 m. hectares in 1969-70 to 52.0 m. hectares in 1972-73; to 60.5 m. hectares in 1973- 74 to 64.0 m. hectares in 1974-75; to 74.6 m. hectares in 1977-78. During the green revolution period use of pesticides has increased considerably.
The table given below show the level of the use of pesticide for different crops as a plant protection measure:
Chemical Plant Protection method has served several ill-effects. Therefore, it should be resorted to only when other control methods fail to provide desired results. Integrated Pest management aims at use of alternate methods of pest control like cultural, mechanical and biological control method in a compatible manner. Now food safety issues are an area of growing concern all over the world. To ensure ecologically safer food products, it is necessary to control pesticide residue contents by fixing maximum residue limit.
With a view to facilitate international trade in agricultural products issuance of a phytosanitary certificate as per the international plant protection convention of 1951 of the Food and Agricultural Organisation has become important. It also requires to limit the chemical pesticides. Now efforts are being made to popularise effective weed control through use of herbicides.
5. Increased Use of Fertilizer:
The continuance of high level of soil fertility and its nutritional balance is one of the important means to profitable land use and sustained agricultural production. The optimum and balanced use of fertilizer is, therefore, an indispensable element of the strategy for achieving the objective, particularly with reference to high yielding varieties.
Not only this, the quality of rural compost produce was of the order of 205 m. tonnes in 1977-78 as against 200 m. tonnes in 1974-75 and 170 m. tonnes in 1973-74. The present coverage of green manuring is estimated at 7 m. hectares. About 5.8 m. tonnes of urban compost was available in 1977-78, as against 5.4 m. tonnes in 1976-77.
Chemical fertilizers have played a significant role in the development of agricultural sector. The consumption of chemical fertilizers has been continuously increasing in the past green revolution period. Consumption of total fertilizers Nitrogenous (N), Phosphatic (P) and Potassic (K)-was 2.2 million tonnes in 1970-71.
Fertilizer consumption has increased to 19.7 million tonnes in 2000-01. It increased to 22.7 million tonnes in 2007-08. Per hectare consumption of fertilizer has also increased during the plan period. Per hectare fertilizer consumption was 95 kg in 2000-01 per hectare consumption of fertilizers was 117.1 Kg in 2007-08 in nutrient terms.
The table given below shows the trend of fertilizer consumption in India:
But the fertilizer use is unbalanced in India. The desired use of N P and K ratio is 4 : 2 : 1, but the existing ratio of N P and K ratio is 8.5 : 3.1 : 1.0 in India. It has also been observed that the deficiency of micro- nutrients has increased especially in high productivity areas. Though fertilizer consumption in India has increased during the green revolution period. But per hectare consumption of chemical fertilizers in India is very low in comparison to several other countries such as Japan, Korea, Denmark and France.
6. New Irrigation Concept:
In the past, irrigation was mainly developed as protection against drought. Now it is oriented to intensive production. This implies limitation of “Command Area” so that available water can be more effectively used for multiple crops as well as intensive agriculture.
For this purpose the C.A.D. Programme has been started in selected Command Areas. Besides, in order to make best utilization of the available water resources, field channels and water courses are constructed. Land levelling and land shaping and other on-farm works, and provision of proper drainage systems and supply of requisite infrastructure facilities and inputs are also provided.
The Command Area Development (CAD) programme was initiated in the Fifth Plan with a view to optimising agricultural production through better management of land and water use in the command areas of irrigation projects where there was considerable gap between the potential created and its realisation. At the beginning of the Sixth Plan, there were 76 projects with an ultimate potential of 15.3 million hectares in 16 States and one union territory. The area covered, then, under field channel was 3.08 million hectares and under land levelling 0.94 million hectares. During 1983-84, 29 additional projects were added and one project in Himachal Pradesh and Maharashtra were completed. Thus, at the beginning of Seventh Plan, there are 102 on-going CAD projects comprising an ultimate potential of 16.5 million hectares in 17 States and one UT.
Exploitation of ground water resources is made possible by the use of minor irrigation works, including the construction of tube wells, dug wells, etc. and the renovation of tanks etc. Minor irrigation is the very important source of irrigation. The ultimate potential for the development of irrigation has been assessed at 55 million hectares comprising 15 million hectares from ground water and 40 million hectares from ground water. The cumulative achievement in creation of irrigation potential by end of 1999-2000 was 94.7 million hectares. Area irrigated through minor irrigation schemes increased from 20.7 million hectares in 1970- 71 to 54.2 million hectares in 1999-2000. It is estimated that area irrigated through minor irrigation increased to about 59.4 million hectares in 1999-2000.
Evaluation of the New Agricultural Strategy:
The major achievement of the new agricultural strategy is the significant increase in foodgrains output. The technology of cultivation has changed substantially with the spread of high yielding varieties which are highly fertilizer responsive as a result of extension of irrigation support prices and availability of credit and marketing facilities.
Agricultural production has increased remarkably during the green revolution period. Foodgrains production increased from 89.0 million tonnes in 1964-65 to 199.3 million tonnes in 1996-97. It had made India self-sufficient in production of foodgrains. Foodgrain production increased to 231 million tonnes in 2007-08. Production of commercial crops also increased due to technological innovation and technology mission for various crops.
Similarly, the productivity of various crops has also increased considerably. There has been increase in agricultural production after 1980 without any increase in net cropped area. It was only due to increase productivity of agriculture. Per hectare yield of foodgrains was 710 kg per hectare in 1960-61. It rose to 1626 kg per hectare in 2000-01 and further to 1,857 kg per hectare in 2007-08. Productivity of oilseeds, potato, cotton, vegetables, etc. has also increased. It is general consensus among the economists that from mid-sixties, it is technological innovation which have enabled the country to achieve the strategic break-through in agriculture.
The table given below show the growth rate in sub sector of agriculture:
As a result of continuous increase in foodgrains production, per capita availability of cereals has increased considerably. Per capita cereal availability was only 334.2 grams, in 1951. It increased to 468 grams per capita per day in 1991. But there is continuous declining trend in per capita per day availability of pulses. Per capita per day availability of pulses was 69 grams per day in 1961. It declined to 37.8 grams per day in 1993.
Per capita per day availability of cereals has increased to 473.7 grams in 1997 and per capita availability of pulses has further declined to 38.4 grams in 1997. Per capita availability of foodgrains has increased considerably during the plan period. Per capita availability was 394.0 grams per day in 1951. It has increased to 512 grams in 1997.
The table given below shows the per capita per day availability of foodgrains, cereals and pulses:
There is no doubt that much heralded green-revolution has arrived in India but in its scale and depth it has not affected the country’s rural economy so much so as to be called the “green revolution”. It has so far been confined to a very limited area and it has affected only a few crops, the principal being wheat. The area which has experienced agricultural productivity revolution on a large scale in the Punjab which is followed by Haryana and Ganga-Yamuna Doab. Its spatial extent is selective.
In these areas of exceptionally high and very high agricultural production the alluvium is cultivated repeatedly with both simple and sophisticated implements; the lands are heavily manured and the water resources are carefully husbanded, so much so that with irrigation farmers fight drought and inconsistency of rainfall. These farmers are enterprising and have love for the holdings, are educated and progressive, hence, have made full use of the package programme.
As contrasted to these areas, the return in farm production has been rather low in most of the districts lying in arid, semi-arid and sub-humid zones of M.P., Karnataka, Assam Hills, Telengana and Rayalseema, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Bihar, etc. Here problem of scarcity of water or excess of water leading to flooding and water-logging need to be solved and with adequate, assured and developed water supply in drought- stricken areas, the liberal use of fertilizers and improved seeds and better tillage, scientific break-through in agriculture could be achieved.
These programmes and agricultural transformation they ushered in have only served to accentuate the already wide socio-economic gap that existed between the farmers of more fortunate regions (with assured rainfall and irrigation) and those of areas largely dependent upon the vagaries of a notoriously fickle monsoon. The disparities in incomes have been widened by these innovations.
Agricultural inputs (in particular chemical fertilizers) were largely cornered by rich landlords, whereas the poor farmers found themselves handicapped by small size of farms, and inadequate inputs, techniques and water supplies. The Green Revolution has, therefore, tended to have its most concentrated application on large farms.
Earnest Feder has correctly observed, “the Green Revolution is a programme for large land owners par excellence and cannot be different; they are already better equipped have almost exclusive access to input and output markets, and are the major, if not the exclusive, recipients of agricultural credit.” Accordingly with the concentration of new technology to large farms, the inequalities have further increased.
There are some other problems in agricultural sector of India. Seed replacement rate for the major corps like rice and wheat remained below 10 per cent against the desired rate of 20 per cent. Availability of location, specific high yielding variety seeds has been a problem. There has been plateauing of yields in high productivity area and the extension has become less effective. Gross Capital Formation in Agriculture has declined sharply.
The Gross Capital Formation in Agriculture (GCFA) in public sector has registered a decline from 15.3 per cent in 1980-81 to 4.9 per cent in 1998-99. Only about 37 per cent of net sown area is under irrigation and remaining 63 per cent is rainfed. Most of the increased production in agriculture has come from the green revolution area. The rainfed areas are still having very high yield per hectare.
