Everything you need to learn about fibre crops cultivation, harvest and growth.
How to Cultivate Flax (Tishi, Alsi) ?
Flax is a valuable fibre which is obtained from the stem of Linum types specially grown for the purpose. The cultivation of flax plants goes back to more than 5000 years. The seed of the flax plant is known as linseed, from which linseed oil is obtained. Some types of the species are grown exclusively for fibre. Flax fibre is soft and lustrous. It is stronger and more durable than cotton fibre and is resistant to high temperature and moisture and also to mildew. Owing to its length, flax fibre is suitable for strong yarns.
The flax plant is grown on a large scale in many countries. The Soviet Union is by far the most important producer of flax fibre and it accounts for 65 to 70 percent of world production. Certain other countries, namely, France, Poland, Belgium, the Netherlands and Czechoslovakia are also large-scale producers of the commodity. In India, flax is grown in temperate regions of UP, MP, Maharashtra, Bihar and West Bengal.
The flax plant (Linum usitatissimum L.) belongs to the family Linaceae. It is an annual herb with a slender, glabrous, greyish green stem, which grows to a height of 90 to 120 cm. It has a distinct main stem. The varieties differ in their habit of branching. While the types grown for fibre are almost unbranched except near the top of the stem, those grown for oilseed are bushy in character.
Leaves are grey-green, small, alternate, and narrow pointed the upper surface smooth and completely glabrous. Flowers are regular and hermaphrodite, in loose terminal racemes or open cymes. Sepals 5 are ovate and acuminate. Petals 5 are contorted, and may be of different colours. Stamens 5 and Carpels 5 united.
Ovary 5 is chambered. Styles 5 are usually free. Stigmas are clavate or capitate. Fruit is a 5-celled, globular capsule, surrounded by the persistent calyx, light brown in colour, slightly ridged and sharply pointed, indehiscent and contains up to ten yellow or light brown to dark brown shining seeds.
Climate:
Flax is grown mainly in temperate regions. It does well in cool, humid climate, in a temperature varying from 10° to 27°C. An average annual rainfall of 274 to 762 mm is good for the crop. Cloudy days are very welcome during the growing period of the plant since they bring down the temperature and conserve moisture.
Hot, dry climate causes the plants to branch and hence adversely affect the yield of fibre. Flax can be very successfully cultivated in India in the valleys of the Himalayan range, where the winter is similar to a European summer.
Soil:
For obtaining the best results, fibre-flax should be grown on medium-heavy soil. A well-drained loam to clay loam is considered ideal. The crop is more sensitive to saline soils than most field crops. It does not do well on soils with a pH of less than 5. A pH range of 5 to 7 has been found to be quite favourable.
Rotation:
Although flax is still being grown by some growers successfully on the same field for a number of years, this practice is not recommended since it leads to depletion of organic matter of the soil and encourages development of diseases of the crop.
A proper crop-rotation should, therefore, be followed so that the land is relatively free of weeds and, in addition, is fairly well supplied with plant nutrients. The rotation should be such that flax is not grown on the same land more than once in five to six years. Flax does well after beans, peas, maize, sugar beet, potatoes, etc.
Cultivation:
In the Gangetic plains and in higher altitudes, sowing is done in early November and early October respectively. The land is ploughed repeatedly, harrowed and planked, so as to obtain a fine, porous and compact seed bed. The seed is- then sown by drilling in rows 20 cm apart. After germination, the seedlings are thinned to keep a distance of 1 to 2 cm between plants in a row.
The seed rate adopted is 40 kg per hectare. Weeds reduce the flax-yield and also affect the quality of fibre. The best method of controlling weeds in flax cultivation is to sow clean seed on weed-free land. The crop, particularly the late-sown one, requires one or two irrigations for its good growth. The flax crop takes about 100 days to mature.
Harvesting:
Harvesting of the crop is undertaken about a month after the initiation of the first flower, when the lower two-thirds of the stem become yellow and leaves from it drop off. The plants are harvested sometime by the end of January or early February, by cutting the plants close to the ground or by pulling them out. The harvested stalks are allowed to dry in the field for a couple of days and the seeds are removed. The stalks are then tied in bundles and steeped in retting water just sufficient to cover them.
Retting, Extraction and Yield:
The methods of retting are water-retting, dew or grass – retting, mixed-retting and snow-retting of which the first one is most common. Flax stalks take about 2 to 3 weeks to ret, defending on the temperature and quality of the retting water. The stalks are then dried in the sun and cleaned.
A simple machine is used for the extraction of fibre. The machine is indigenously designed and has certain rollers, which break the woody core when the stalks are passed through them. The fibre is thus completely separated from the other tissues of the stalks and the operation is known as scotching. The separated fibre strands are then properly brushed and rolled into bundles. The machine can also be used to obtain fibre from the linseed straw, which is regarded as a waste or is sometimes fed to cattle or burnt as fuel. The yield of fibre varies from about 250 to 400 kg per hectare.
Use:
The best grades of flax fibre are used for weaving into fine fabrics, such as linen, cambric, lace, sheeting, and also for making linen thread, whereas the coarser grades are used for twines, canvas, ropes, carpet-backing, sails, wrapping cloth, etc. Tissue paper, fire-fighting hose pipes, water bags and knapsacks are also made of flax fibre.
Varieties:
In the past, flax cultivation in India was done by importing varieties from abroad. Since this was uneconomical, certain new selections were made, which have become acclimatized and are doing well.
Diseases and Insect Pests:
The important diseases of flax are:
(i) Rust caused by Melampsora lini, which can be controlled by growing resistant varieties, by treating seed with Agrosan GN @ 2 g/kg in the hilly tracts and by spraying Zineb @ 2 kg in 1025 litres of water per hectare.
(ii) Wilt caused by Fusarium lini, which can be controlled by growing resistant varieties and by treating seed with Agrosen GN @ 2 g/kg.
(iii) Alternaria blight caused by Alternaria lini, which can be controlled by treating seed with Agrosan GN @ 2.5 g/kg and by growing late-maturing varieties.
The important insect pests of flax are:
(i) Cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon), which can be controlled by dusting 10% BHC on the soil around the plants.
(ii) Aphid (Myzus persicae), which can be controlled by spraying 0.03% Phosphamidon, Dimethoate, Methyl demeton or Monocrotophos.
(iii) Linseed gall midge (Dasyneure lini), which can be controlled by dusting 10% BHC or 4% Carbaryl.
(iv) Hairy caterpillar (Euproctis scintillans), which can be controlled by dusting 10% BHC.
How to Cultivate Mesta (Patsan, Patwa) ?
The mesta fibre is obtained from the stems of two different species of Hibiscus namely, Hibiscus cannabinus and Hibiscus sabdariffa var. altissima. The former is also known as kenaf, Deccan hemp or Bimilipatam jute and the latter as roselle. Both kenaf and roselle are good substitutes for jute.
Of the two species, cannabinus is less exacting in its requirements in respect of soil and climate than jute. Its fibre is tougher and stronger than jute fibre, but is coarser and less supple. However, its quality is more or less similar to medium-grade Jute.
Both the Mesta plants have been grown in different parts of the world for centuries. H. cannabinus is cultivated in many countries of Asia, South America and Africa, but only Thailand, India, Brazil, China and the USSR may be referred to as major producers.
On the other hand, H. sabdariffa is cultivated in Africa, America and parts of Asia. In India, mesta (both H. cannabinus and H. sabdariffa var. altissima) is grown in many states, namely, West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Tripura, AP, Orissa, MP, Maharashtra, UP and Karnataka, the total annual area being about 3 lakh hectares. Of this area, more than 80 percent is occupied by H. sabdariffa types.
H. cannabinus L. is herbaceous annual plant belonging to the family Malvaceae. When grown as a fibre crop, the plant has a long, slender, unbranched, glabrous or prickly stem, which may reach a height of 2.4 to 3.6 m or even more. Leaves are of various shapes and degrees of dissection and are stipulate.
Flowers are showy and borne singly in the leaf axils. Bracteoles 5 are adnate to the base of the calyx tube. Calyx 5 is lobed, horny in fruit; lobes are prickly, with prominent midrib. Petals 5 are connate at the base and adnate to the staminal column. Stamens are many, monadelphous; filaments are short. Carpels 5 are united. Ovary 5 is locular. Styles 5 are connate below. Stigmas are capitate. Fruit is a 5-valved capsule. Seeds are glabrous.
H. sabdariffa var. altissima Wester is an erect, glabrous, annual shrub, belonging to the family, Malvaceae. The stem may reach a height of 3 m or more and may be variously coloured. Leaves are alternate and glabrous, borne on long petioles; blade usually palmately divided into three or five lobes, with serrated margins. Flowers are showy, borne singly in the axils of upper leaves, on very short peduncles. Other characters are more or less like those of cannabinus.
Climate:
Mesta does well in areas with warm and humid climate. While rosell requires a well distributed annual rainfall of 1,500 to 2,000 mm, kenaf requires 500 to 750 mm. Neither species can withstand prolonged water-logging. Both grow in drier, rain-fed areas. Of the two, rosell can withstand a warmer and more humid climate but is more susceptible to frost damage.
Soil:
Both the species grow on a variety of soils though well-drained rich loams give the highest yield. Acid soils without amendment and low-lying areas, subject to inundation, are not suitable for the crops.
Rotation:
Mesta is normally grown mixed with crops like pulses, bajra, jowar and cotton. Sometimes, it may be grown pure, in rotation with cereals, pulses, etc.
Cultivation:
The land is prepared in almost the same way as in the case of jute, by repeated ploughing and harrowing, so as to have a fine tilth. In the case of a pure crop of H. cannabinus, the seed is sown in May-July, either by broadcasting or by drilling in rows, 20-30 cm apart, with a spacing of 5 to 7 cm between plants. The quantity of seed required for a broadcast crop is 17-22 kg per hectare and that for a line – sown crop, 15-17 kg per hectare.
The seed of H. sabdariffa can also be sown in both the ways, i.e., by broadcasting and also by drilling in rows, with a spacing of 30 cm between rows and 12 to 15 cm between plants. In the former method, 12-17 kg seed per hectare is required, while in the latter, 10-12.5 kg. H. sabdariffa is sown about the middle of April. However, in Tamil Nadu, the sowing is usually done in May-June.
Unlike jute, both H. sabdariffa and H. cannabinus compete well with weeds and as such delayed weeding is possible. Two weeding and thinning are quite useful when they are done timely. At least, two wheels hoeing in the row-crop within 45 days of sowing are beneficial.
Manuring and Fertilization:
Manure is rarely applied to the mesta crop. However, a good response is obtained from H. cannabinus by application of 25 to 35 kg of N per hectare in organic or inorganic form. The H. sabdariffa types, on the other hand, have been found to respond well to 25 to 60 kg of N per hectare, depending on soil type, rainfall etc.
In drier areas, a basal dose of smaller quantity gives higher yields. In areas having a good distribution of rainfall, the total quantity of nitrogen is increased and one- third is applied as basal dose and the remaining quantity is top-dressed in two installments. Although soil application of N is very good for Mesta, foliar feeding is also helpful.
Harvesting:
Mesta plants are harvested when they are in flower. Delayed harvesting gives larger yields of fibre, but the quality is coarser. Plants are harvested by uprooting them or by cutting them close to the ground as done in the case of jute. Types of H. sabdariffa take 180-210 days to flower and are of longer duration than those of H. cannabinus, which take about 150 days to flower. After harvest the plants are left in the sun for a few days and then tied in bundles. Leaves, flowers and fruits, if any, are removed in the meantime.
Retting, Extraction and Yields:
Retting is done in the same manner as in the case of jute. However, the temperature, which prevails at the time of retting, as also the availability of retting water, may pose a problem. The harvested stems of both the species can be stored under dry conditions for retting next season during the time the monsoon is in full swing.
However, retting in the current season, if that is possible, is always preferable. After the plant-stalks are properly retted, they are beaten with a mallet for loosening the fibres. The loose fibres are completely separated by wrapping them round the fingers and, at the same time, jerking the stalks in water. Separated fibres are cleaned in water and dried.
The average yield of dry fibre from a pure crop of Mesta varies from 15 to 18 quintals per hectare.
Use:
In India,” the fibre is used on a fairly large scale in the jute mills in conjunction with jute. In other countries, it is used for making ropes, twines, fishing nets, etc. Fibres of poor quality and cuttings of H. cannabinus are used for manufacturing paper. The paper pulp made from mature stalks of H. cannabinus has been found in USA to be comparable or even superior to hard wood and soft wood pulps.
Varieties:
The varieties now being recommended for general cultivation are -HC 583 and HC 867 of H. cannabinus and HS 4288, HS 7910 and AMVI of H. sabdariffa. HC 867 has resistance to spiral borer and it yields better of the two cannabinus varieties in certain areas. Of the three sabdariffa varieties, the HS ones yield about 27 quintals of fibre per hectare under average conditions and AMVI does well in dry rain-fed areas.
Diseases and Insect Pests:
The important diseases of H. cannabinus are:
(i) Anthracnose caused by, Colletotrichum hibisci, which can be controlled by using copper oxychloride.
(ii) Tip rot caused by Phoma spp., which can be controlled by using copper fungicides.
(iii) Root-rot caused by Rhizoctonia bataticola alone or in combination with Fusarium oxysporum, which can be controlled by seed treatment with organo-mercuric compounds or TMTD or Captan.
(iv) Eye-rot caused by Myrothecium roridum, which can be controlled by using copper oxychloride.
(v) Root-knot caused by nematode (Meloidogyne incognita), which can be controlled by crop rotation.
The important diseases of H. sabdariffa are:
(i) Foot and stem rot caused by Phytophthora parasitica F. sabdariffae, which can be controlled by drenching the soil and the basal portion of the plants with Copper oxychloride and by ensuring good drainage of the plot.
(ii) Leaf-rot caused by Phoma sabdariffae, which is found to be severe in areas with high rainfall, but it does not affect the fibre directly.
A very important insect pest of H. cannabinus is Stem borer (Agrilus acutus), which can be controlled by Endrin EC 20 (0.04%) or better by Methyl Parathion.
The important insect pest of H. sabdariffa is mealy bug (Maconellicoccus hirsutus), which causes bunchy top, can be controlled by Methyl demeton (0.05%), Parathion (0.04%), Monocrotophos (0.04%) and Fenitrothion (0.04%).
The polyphagous beetle (Podagria apicifulva) does considerable damage to both the species of Hibiscus and the pest can be controlled by BHC 10%.
How to Cultivate Ramie (Kankhura):
Ramie fibre, the strongest vegetable fibre, is obtained from the stems of the plant, Boehmeria nivea. The plant is a native of East Asia and is grown in both tropical and temperate regions, particularly in countries like China, Philippines, Japan, Indonesia, Malaysia, India and Brazil. The fibre has been known in China since 2200 B.C. and that country is now the largest producer in the world.
The ramie plant (Boehmeria nivea (L.) (Gaud.) is a shrub belonging to the family Urticaceae. It has a number of tall, slender stems arising from a perennial root stock, reaching a height of 2 to 3 metres or more. Leaves are heart shaped, green above and whitish beneath. Ramie is unisexual, monoecious and cross-pollinated.
Under some conditions, ramie is pseudo-dioecious. Flowers are green or greenish yellow in colour, may be pink or almost red. Certain varieties may differ in the number of male and female flowers borne on a stem and also in the size of the flower heads.
Climate:
A warm and humid climate is required for proper growth of the ramie plant. Low temperature is very injurious to it. A well-distributed rainfall, around 1,600 to 2,500 mm, is required by the crop and, therefore, the climate of northern parts of West Bengal, Assam, the foothills of Meghalaya and Western Ghats is quite suitable for its cultivation.
Soil:
The most suitable soils are well-drained sandy loams with a high content of nutrients. Ramie cannot withstand water logging and the crop suffers badly under such conditions. Acid soils are unsuitable for the plants unless proper liming has been done.
Cultivation:
In some areas, propagation by seed is common, but since raising plants from seeds takes about two years, vegetative propagation by means of suckers (or rhizomes) and root cuttings is generally practised. In India, a plantation is raised from rhizome cuttings. The soil is properly prepared after adding large quantities of organic matter.
The cuttings are then planted 50 cm apart in rows running at a distance of 1m from one another. In certain cases, there may be a variation in spacing. Two quintals of cuttings are generally required for an area of one hectare. The planting time in north-eastern India is April to June. Ramie is a semi-perennial crop and is replanted after a period of 7 to 8 years. Weeding is generally done in the early stages of growth of the plants.
Manuring and Fertilization:
Since very large amounts of plait nutrients are regularly removed from the soil by successive cuttings, application of sufficient quantities of fertilizers is necessary so that the production is maintained at a high level. All the waste material remaining after decortication of plants should be returned to the soil because this practice not only cuts down the cost on fertilizers, but may also improve the physical condition of the soil.
The research conducted in Japan have indicated that for successful production of ramie in areas where three cuttings are taken each year, about 190 kg of nitrogen should be applied per hectare in the first year, about 265 kg in the second year and about 298 kg in the third and subsequent years, provided the waste material obtained after decortication is returned to the soil. For soils deficient in phosphates, an application of 35 to 60 kg P2O5 is recommended. Since most Japanese soils have enough potash, application of only 45 to 100 kg K2O is recommended.
The practice in Japan is to apply the waste material in the form of well-rotted compost at the rate of 10,000 kg per hectare, together with phosphate, potash and part of nitrogen as a mixed basal dressing. The remaining quantity of nitrogen is applied in two separate installments.
Harvesting:
As the first year’s growth is not uniform, the plant is cut back close to the ground in April. From the second year onwards, 4-6 cuttings, depending on plant- growth, are generally taken at intervals of about 55 days. The highest yield is generally obtained in the third and fourth years after planting.
Harvesting at the right time is very important for quality of fibre. This may be determined from the colour of the stems. In China, the stems are harvested when they are generally yellowish in colour, about one-third of the leaves have fallen and new shoots have begun to form on the lower part of the plant. The stems are cut by hand. In certain areas, mechanical cutting has been introduced.
Extraction and Yield:
The extraction of fibre is done directly from fresh canes with the help of decorticators. So far as India is concerned, the fibre is extracted with indigenous or imported raspador decorticators. After extraction, the fibre which retains some gum is sold in the market. The consumers remove the gum by different methods, including boiling with alkali, using the tripolyphosphate buffer.
The non-availability of suitable machines for decortication and the difficulties experienced in separating the fibres from their pectic gummy coating have been responsible for preventing the spread of the commercial cultivation of ramie. The total annual yield of un-degummed fibre per hectare is about 12-16 quintals.
Quality:
Ramie fibre has a tensile strength about eight times that of cotton and seven times that of silk. The fibres are exceptionally long, 20 to 40 cm, very durable and have a high lustre. They lack elasticity and are very smooth and, therefore, cannot be spun in the normal way.
Although the plant grows over wide areas and the fibre has excellent properties, proper utilization of the fibre on a large scale has not so far been done outside China and Japan. It is very expensive and cannot be used in mass-produced articles. It cannot also be spun into fine yarns. Further, the normal method of extraction of the fibre is tedious and requires a great deal of manual labour.
Use:
Ramie fibre is used in general for spinning and weaving into very good cloth, suitable for clothing, table cloths, handkerchiefs, curtains etc. It is an excellent raw material for blending with Terylene or rayon; Ramie fibre itself can be spun and woven into quality cloth, which takes brilliant colours. It can be used for sacks, thread and gas mantles. Tow fibre is used for making sophisticated paper, including currency blanks.
Varieties:
Some of the new improved varieties, which are suitable for growing in northern India, are R 1449, R 1452 and R 1411.
Diseases and Insect Pests:
No serious disease on pest has so far been reported.
How to Cultivate Sisal ?
The leaf fibres, often referred to as “hard” fibres, are obtained from leaves or leaf stalks of monocotyledonous plants. Of these fibres, sisal (Agave sisalana) is one of the most important. The sisal plant yields coarse, stiff, yellowish fibres from its leaves, which are used mainly in the manufacture of ropes and twines. The plant is a native of Mexico and Central America.
The total world production of sisal fibres is near about 650,000 tonnes per year. Tanzania is by far the largest producer, followed by Brazil, Angola and Kenya. In India, moribund plantations of sisal exist in south Bihar, Orissa, AP, Karnataka, Maharashtra, MP and West Bengal. These plantations were raised in the early parts of the twentieth century.
Sisal (Agave sisalana Perrine), popularly known as century plant, belongs to the family, Agavaceae, related to Liliaceae and Amaryllidaceae.
Three or four species of the genus are cultivated in different parts of the tropics for the fibres obtained from their leaves. The plant is a perennial shrub with a short thick rhizomatous stem, which is almost completely concealed in the early stages by the surrounding sessile leaves.
These leaves are very long, straight, thick and fleshy structures, bluish green in colour and spiny at the tip and also at the edges. Inflorescence a long thyroid panicle on a stout pole-like peduncle, which arises from the centre of the plant and rapidly grows to a height of 7-10 m. Flowers are regular and bisexual.
Perienth is funnel-shaped, the tube being short. Stamens 6 are filaments adnate to the base of the segments of perianth and longer than them. Carpels 3 are ovary inferior and 3-celled, each cell having many ovules. Style is filiform. Stigma 3 is lobed. Fruit is a leathery, ovoid capsule. Seeds are many, obliquely flattened with black testa.
The duration of the vegetative phase of the sisal plant is different in different locality and it extends usually over a number of years, may be for 8 to 10 years or more. The floral axis develops slowly and produces flowers, which drop off and bulbils develop on the seat of flowers. Both bulbils and suckers can be used for the propagation of the plant.
Climate:
The sisal plant is essentially tropical and is fairly hardy. It can withstand dry periods of some duration. It thrives best in high temperatures, in areas with an annual rainfall varying from 1,000 to 1,200 mm. However, in certain soil conditions, the plant can grow even if the annual rainfall is as low as 280 to 375 mm.
Soil:
The plant does not require very fertile soils and it can be raised on clayey, gravelly or sandy soil. However, it grows quite rapidly in richer soils when the rainfall is heavy. The roots are extremely sensitive to water-logging and they must have well-aerated soil. The sisal plant prefers dry, permeable, sandy-loam soils, particularly calcareous soils, which are approximately neutral in reaction.
Cultivation, Harvesting, Extraction and Yield:
The sisal plant is propagated by bulbils or suckers. The land is prepared after it has been cleared. A fine tilth is harmful and a rough, cloddy tilth is considered suitable for raising the plant.
The time of planting sisal varies considerably, depending mainly on climatic conditions. The planting should generally be done well in advance of the seasonal rains, when the land is dry. Bulbils and suckers are closely planted in nurseries and raised with sufficient amounts of nutrients for a year and transplanted when they are 10 to 18 months old.
A plant population of 5,000 per hectare may be suitable for a plantation. Nutritional imbalance is very harmful to sisal and substantial quantities of not only nitrogen and phosphorus, but potassium, calcium and magnesium also are required by it.
The control of weeds is very important in most sisal-growing areas. The common method of weeding is hand hoeing, which is done periodically during the young stage of the crop. As many as ten weeding may have to be done annually in the first two years.
The harvesting of leaves depends on the growth of plants and it generally starts after 2-3 years of planting. The harvests are then taken annually and they are continued for 7 to 8 years, which comprise a full cycle. After completion of a cycle, the plantation is cleared and heavily manured. Before replantation of sisal is done, the land in question should preferably be put under a green-manure crop.
At harvest, the leaves are cut off by hand, made into bundles and transported to the place of extraction. As cut leaves deteriorate soon if left exposed to the sun, their transport should be done very quickly.
The fibre is extracted with power-driven decorticators. Respador decorticators, which are now being manufactured in India, can be successfully used for the purpose. The fibre is usually dried in the sun for a day or so, depending on the weather conditions. In certain areas, the decorticated fibre is cleaned in water before the same is dried in the sun.
In the dry infertile areas of north-western Orissa or Chhota Nagpur in Bihar, an annual yield of two tonnes of fibre per hectare may be considered good. The yield can be improved to a considerable extent with good management. It is particularly so if the soil is good and is provided with good drainage facilities and the rainfall range from 650 to 1,300 mm.
Use:
The fibre is used for the manufacture of ropes, twines and different forms of cordage, including marine cordage. Considerable quantities are also put to other uses, namely, manufacture of bags, sacks, carpets, mattresses, brushes, door mats and fancy articles. Sisal wax is used for preparation of polishing compositions and for manufacturing carbon papers.
Diseases and Insect Pests:
Sisal does not generally suffer much due to the attack of diseases or insect pests. However, certain diseases may attack the leaves, namely, Colletotrichum spp., Diplodia spp. and Alternaria spp., when the rainfall exceeds 1,500 mm. Phytophthora spp. and Pythium spp. have also been found on exotic varieties introduced recently and both the diseases can be controlled by using resistant varieties.