Everything you need to know about coriander cultivation, growth and harvest. Learn about:- 1. Introduction to Coriander 2. Origin and Distribution of Coriander 3. Composition and Uses 4. Climate Required for Cultivation 5. Soil Required for Cultivation 6. Sowing Time 7. Manurial Requirement for Cultivation 8. Irrigation Requirement for Cultivation 9. Intercultural Operation and Few Others.
Contents:
- Introduction to Coriander
- Origin and Distribution of Coriander
- Composition and Uses of Coriander
- Climate Required for Cultivating Coriander
- Soil Required for Cultivating Coriander
- Sowing Time of Coriander
- Manurial Requirement for Coriander Cultivation
- Irrigation Requirement for Coriander Cultivation
- Intercultural Operation of Coriander
- Harvesting and Yielding of Coriander
- Cultivated Varieties of Coriander
1. Introduction
to Coriander:
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) is one of the earliest spices used by the man, and its name Coriandrum is derived from the Greek word ‘koris’, meaning bedbug. The fetid and bug-like odor of green leaves and green fruits is accountable for its name, however, this unpleasant ‘buggy’ odor is gradually replaced by a fragrant spicy aroma as the fruit ripens and dries up. It is one of the oldest condiments and does not require any prologue and description, at least to the homemakers since it is used almost daily in every kitchen.
It has become a popular flavoring food additive in several Latin American countries, especially Peru. In Spanish speaking regions, the coriander crop when grown for its foliage is known as cilantro or Chinese parsley, however, it is known as coriander while cultivated as seed crop.
The green herb is much preferred for culinary flavoring purposes in Asia, the Middle East, central, and South America where it is grown for domestic consumption, contrarily, in the whole or powdered form, it is considered as an important spice commodity of international trade and used widely as flavoring substance. The major producing countries are Russia and Balkan countries, India, Central Europe, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Guatemala, Mexico, Asia Minor, Turkey, Palestine, Yugoslavia, Argentina, North Africa principally Morocco, and the United States.
Production of a large quantity of coriander in many countries where the labor is cheaper and relatively lower price of coriander seed in the markets limit the possibilities of commercial production of this crop in United States, thus, a large quantity of coriander is imported every year into US mostly from Morocco and Romania.
In India, it is cultivated largely as a spice crop in almost all states, on commercial scale in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar, and on limited scale in Karnataka and Orissa. However, Rajasthan is the leading state in area and production followed by Andhra Pradesh. During the year 2002-2003, 2.85 lakh tonnes of coriander seed was produced from 1.73 lakh hectare area, and a foreign exchange of Rs. 71 crores was earned by exporting 21000 metric tonnes coriander during the year 2003-2004.
Coriander is an annual aromatic herbaceous plant with erect and branching leafy stem, and leaves are alternate, pinnatifid and smooth surfaced, when grown as seed crop the plant attains a height of 1-1.5 m at flowering stage. The rosette leaves are longer petioled and less incised than the upper ones.
Plant with slender tap root system and slender and glabrous stem is multi- branched at top portion. Inflorescence is terminal compound umbel and the flowers are zygomorphic and hermaphrodite. The white or pink tinged flowers with five calyx teeth and a short conical style are bisexual at periphery and unisexual at the center.
The flower consists of five petals of unequal size and five stamens with long spreading filaments. Calyxes are tubular and adnate to ovate at the base with 5 lobes and the ovary is bicarpellary. Fruit is a nearly globular schizocarp (two-seeded), green when young, yellowish brown at maturity, ribbed composed of two concavo- convex mericarps with inner face of carpel having two vitae.
The schizocarp fruit contains two slender spreading styles and consists of two halves each with single seeded mericarp attached to an undivided carpaphore. A pericarp encloses a single seed with a small embryo embedded in the endosperm towards the apex of the seed.
2. Origin and Distribution of Coriander:
Coriander is a native of Southern Europe and Asia Minor. Precisely, Italy is presumed to be the native place of coriander, and the plant was dispersed subsequently to other parts of the world. In a treatise, Farrell (1999) has described coriander as indigenous to the near East and Mediterranean region of North Africa and Southern Europe.
As mentioned in the Bible, it was familiar to the ancient Israelites long before and used by the Egyptians for medicinal and culinary purposes as early as 1550 BC, and was one of the drugs employed by Hippocrates and other Greek physicians in the era of about 400 BC.
Coriander was one of the earliest herbs grown in America by the colonists and introduced into Massachusetts before 1670. Later its cultivation widely spread to warmer climates, especially to India where it was started growing extensively, not only for its use as a spice and condiment in curry powder but also for pharmaceutical formulations. As the civilization developed, coriander became a widely known spice. In China, according to Bret-Schneider, the First reference is in an agricultural treatise of the fifth century.
Especially the Chinese used this south-European plant cultivated in Java and sold in the Batavia markets as a vegetable for seasoning some Chinese dishes. According to Redgrove (1933), coriander was used in early seventeenth century as an ingredient of eau de Carries, a liqueur that acquired great popularity in Paris for its dual role.
The Romans introduced it in few localities of southern England prior to the Norman Conquest and have used it as food item for over 2000 years. According to early Sanskrit-writings, coriander was known as far back as 5000 BC for its cultivation in India, and could be seen everywhere in the markets of India.
3. Composition and Uses
of Coriander:
Coriander is quite popular for its peculiar sweet fragrance in leaves and fruits. Fresh green leaves and ground seed powder are used for flavoring the foods but the odor, taste, flavor, and composition of both are evidently different. Significant variations are observed in biochemical constituents between varieties and seeds at different stages of development.
However, the presence of phytic acid did not vary at different stages of seed development. The variation in contents of various constituents particularly that of volatile oil is due to the genetic make-up of a variety grown, and the other factors associated with the variation are the location, climatic conditions of the growing region, the state of fruit maturity at harvest, procedure of drying and the duration and conditions of storage.
Coriander is recognized well as good source of vitamins and minerals but known to have little nutritive value. The coriander leaves are very rich in vitamin A, containing 5200 to 12000 IU per 100 g. The nutritional composition of coriander leaves are given below in Table 21.1.
The dried ripe fruits contain volatile oil, fixed oil, tannins, cellulose, pentosans, pigments, protein, calcium oxalate, minerals, and sugars. The major constituents of coriander fruit are about 23-36% fiber, 20% carbohydrates, 16-28% fixed oil, and 11-17% proteins. The nutritional composition of coriander seeds are given below in Table 21.1.
Uses:
The tender leaves, petioles, and fruits of coriander are though not rich in nutrients but play a significant role in various cooked vegetable curries and non-vegetarian dishes since it not only improves their appearance but also improves the digestion of nutritionally important foods. The freshly harvested greens and seeds have a pleasant aromatic odor, hence, are indispensable food adjuncts in Indian cookery for imparting aroma and taste to various preparations.
Coriander is popular as a garnish for salads, sandwiches, and cooked dishes, as flavouring to soups, chutneys, sauces and curries, and as a salad ingredient in small amounts because of its pleasant aroma. Coriander seed used as a major ingredient in curry powders, pickling spices, and condiments comprises up to 40% by weight. The fruits are used as condiment in preparation of curry powder, pickling soups, sausages, and seasonings. In food industry, coriander has big use in flavouring pastry, cakes, biscuits, chewing gums, tobacco products, and beverages.
Coriander seed oil is primarily used in seasoning sausage and other meat products, and employed for flavouring alcoholic beverages, particularly ‘gin’, pork, frankfurter, meat, fish, salad, soda and syrup, gelatin dessert, pudding and candy preserve, etc. In southeastern Asia, the seeds are used as condiment, as an ingredient of curry powder and chewed with betel nut. The seeds are used to extract good quality oleoresin, which is used as flavoring agent in beverages, pickles and other delicacies. Coriander roots are also consumed in China and Thailand.
Coriander has been used as an ingredient to traditional and folk medicine in the Middle East and Asia for more than 2000 years, however, in India, the foremost use of coriander is in flavoring foods and a restricted amount is used in pharmaceuticals and perfumery.
Coriander seeds possess immense medicinal properties such as carminative, diuretic, tonic, anti-stomachache, aphrodisiac, laxative, antibillious and refrigerant, thus, being used in Ayurvedic and Unani system of medicine. An infusion of coriander seeds is taken thrice a day to lower down the blood sugar.
Its infusion in combination with cardamom and caraway seeds is useful medicine against flatulence, vomiting, indigestion, and other intestinal disorders, and decoction in milk after adding sugar is beneficial in bleeding piles, mucous diarrhea, rheumatism, neuralgia, and cephalagia and locally in eye infection. Coriander water is useful in indigestion and other bowl complaints. The seeds are chewed to correct the foul breath and along with jaggery to remove constipation.
It is used as a flavoring agent to conceal and modify the disagreeable offensive odor and nauseating qualities of other medicines in pharmaceutical preparations, to correct the gripping qualities of rhubarb and senna. Its seeds are reported to lessen the intoxicating effects of spirituous liquors.
The paste of coriander, nutmeg, clove, honey, lemon peel, and rose water lightens and tones up the skin. Smearing of coriander leaves paste with juice of apple, milk, and Multani mitti (a special type of loam) tones up the skin during summer and for similar action a paste of its leaves with apricot is also used.
Coriander and tender coconut mixed together are popularly used as a cosmeceutical application in India to cure pimples. Because of good harmony with jasmine oil, the coriander seed oil is used in perfumery, and after oil distillation, its residue used as cattle feed, which is a rich source of protein and fat.
4. Climate Required for Cultivating Coriander
:
Coriander is well adapted to a wide range of climatic conditions, however, being winter season crop it thrives best under frost-free cool climate with sunny days though it can fairly tolerate light frost and high temperature too. It is cultivated profitably as winter crop in northern plains and as summer crop in hilly tracts, however, in mild climates, the crop for leafy-greens can be cultivated round the year with assured irrigations.
For seed production, the crop in early stages requires relatively low temperature coupled with high light intensity for better vegetative growth but in later stages, particularly at flowering and fruiting stage, a moderately cool and dry weather conditions favor the production of higher yield of better quality seed provided the growing region is frost-free, especially when the crop is at flowering and seed setting stage since occurrence of frost at these stages may be very injurious to the crop. High temperature and high wind velocity during anthesis and seed setting accelerate sterility and ultimately reduce the yield.
Coriander crop may also be grown in Kharif season for the production of leafy-greens but may not be grown in spring-summer for greens because within short time the plant switches over form vegetative to reproductive phase as soon as the temperature reaches beyond 20°C, thus, extremes of climate, especially high temperature, result in less number of cuttings, and ultimately, lesser greens yield.
Lancttow-Wing et al. (1984) noticed that early bolting in summer is more common than in winter, resulting low yield. Low temperature exposure (vernalization) followed by long days is the stimulus for bolting, a process of developing seed stalk that bears small umbels. After completion of vernalization, high temperature and long days promote development of early seed stalk. Putievsky (1983) noticed that the time between flowering and harvesting was reduced by long day treatment but plant weight and most of the other morphological characteristics measured except plant height were also reduced because of earlier flowering.
Germination is considerably reduced at a temperature below 10° and above 30°C. Putievsky (1981) found the best germination of coriander seed at 21° day and 22°C night temperature predominantly when single achenes were sown since the effect of seed size was more evident. The most favorable temperature range for its usual growth varies from 15° to 20°C.
Relatively high temperature during growth reduces the petiole size and its succulence, and makes the leaves stiff and fibrous as a result they lose their palatability and pass their edible stage very shortly. For better quality foliage, coriander requires low temperature and high relative humidity, however, cloudy weather and high relative humidity during flowering and seed setting stage favor the attack of insect-pests and diseases. Heavy rains are also very harmful for this crop since continuous rain invites number of foliage diseases.
5. Soil Required for Cultivating Coriander
:
Coriander can be grown on a wide range of soils provided they are sufficiently fertile and well drained, however, black cotton heavy soils to loamy soils are ideally suited for quality production of greens and fruits under irrigated conditions, and owing to high moisture retention capacity heavy soils are ideally suited for rain fed cultivation too. The soil should adequately be rich in organic matter so that it may hold moisture for longer period, which is essential for proper and quicker vegetative growth.
The crop can also be grown in light soils with assured irrigation facilities and in heavy soils without irrigation since heavy soils are better in water holding capacity. Bhati (1989) also stated that coriander could be grown successfully on both light sandy and heavy loam soils, but the quality of greens is not good enough in very light and heavily clay soils.
Soils with neutral pH (6-7) are suitable for satisfactory greens yield since better quality produce may not be harvested from crop grown in soils with low or high pH, hence, such soils should be avoided for the cultivation of coriander. Mangal et al. (1986) noticed that coriander seed germination decreased (85-86.6% in control to zero at 10 mmhos/cm) with increasing salinity level from 2.5 to 12.5 mmhos/cm. Zidan and Elewa (1995) observed that coriander seed during germination could tolerate salinity up to 200 mM NaCl2.
Concentrations of soluble protein in coriander seedlings remained unchanged under low and moderate levels of NaCl2 though a marked progressive increase in the concentration of protein and other amino acids was recorded at higher salinity levels up to 80 mM NaCl2, while the respiration rate remained unaffected. The plant growth in respect to height, number of stems per plant and the final stand was considerably affected by salinity.
Coriander production was noticed satisfactory at a salinity level below 5.1 dS/m, however, the yield reduction was recorded up to 50% in all cultivars as the salinity level exceeded 6.0 dS/m. Growth, flowering, and yield parameters affected adversely even at 4.0 dS/m, and the effect was proportionate with the increase in salinity level to a maximum of 10 dS/m. The cultivar Narnaul Selection showed the utmost salinity tolerance.
For raising a good crop, the field is prepared well by repeated ploughing followed by planking since the soil at the time of sowing must be pulverized and the field properly leveled to avoid stagnation of water, which is harming to the crop. Field should be ploughed timely at right field capacity, and the clods should be broken down by repeated planking soon after ploughing to bring the soil to a fine tilth.
Reducing excessive moisture loss also helps in retention of moisture, which is most essential when the crop is grown under rain fed conditions. For rain fed crop, the field is prepared before the onset of monsoon with the aim of absorbing maximum moisture to a soil depth since sound soil management practices enhance crop productivity.
6. Sowing Time of Coriander:
The sowing time varies with the climatic conditions of the growing region, thus, it is different in different localities. Coriander is normally sown during cooler months. For leaf purposes, it can be grown round the year except in hotter months, however, for grains production, it is sown at a time specific since early sown crop may come in flowering too earlier and become more vulnerable to frost damage, and late sowings affect the crop growth and yield adversely though it is safe in regions prone to frost incidence.
In general, the sowing for seed crop is done from October to the middle of November in most of the commercial coriander growing areas, however, last week of October is the most optimum time for its sowing. From the work of several researchers Bhati (1989) concluded that second fortnight of October is the best time for the sowing of coriander. In northern plains of India, the sowing for fresh green leaves is done from September to November and on hills from March to April, depending on altitude.
According to Singh and Gangwar (1991), the main crop of coriander for grains is sown in October-November in northern India. In central parts of India and Andhra Pradesh, sowing is done between mid-October and mid-November, though in certain pockets of central parts of India and Andhra Pradesh, Kharif crop, which is sown late in August-September, is taken.
In southern states such as Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, part of Karnataka, and under Coimbatore conditions of Tamil Nadu, the coriander is sown in Kharif season during June-July and in Rabi season during August- September as an irrigated crop, however, under rain-fed conditions, its sowing starts from September-October.
In Mysore and in certain parts of Madras, coriander is sown twice once from May to August and second from October to January for Kharif and Rabi season crop, respectively. The rain fed crop of coriander in northern Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh is sown from mid-September to October.
A seed yield of 6 q/ha was obtained by Singh et al. (1979) when the crop was sown in the middle of October, while Baswana et al. (1989) obtained the highest seed yield of 14.2 and 19.6 q/ha for the year 1983-84 and 1984-85, respectively when the sowing was done on October 30, and concluded that the decreased yield with the sowing after this date might be due to insufficient time for vegetative growth as the plants enter the reproductive phase at a faster rate.
Sharma and Prasad (1990) obtained highest grain yield of coriander when the crop was sown on the earliest date. Seed yield, net returns per hectare and benefit: cost ratio were highest for the 31st October sowing and declined markedly with further delay in sowing under the conditions of Delhi (Sharma and Israel, 1991), whereas, Vankateswarlu et al. (1992) obtained highest seed yield (9.65 q/ha) and essential oil yield with sowing on 20th October.
Bhati and Shakhawat (1994) reported that the crop sown around 31 October in Rajasthan produced the highest grain yield. In Cooch of Bihar, Chaudhari et al. (1995) obtained the highest seed yield (2.47 g/plant or 9.83 q/ha), test weight (1.28 g), variability (66.35%) and dry weight of 10 seedlings (30.12 mg) with sowing on November 1st.
Gill et al. (1999) found no effect of early and late sowing dates on seed yield of coriander, while Reddy and Rolston (1999) noted that seed yield and quality were very sensitive to date of sowing, and the seed yield declined 36 kg ha-1 day-1 from the first sowing on September 17th to the last sowing on December 1st. Seed weight and germination also declined as the sowings were delayed from 17th September, and the harvest index (HI) ranged from 33 to 44%.
In a trial Bhati et al. (1989) obtained significantly higher number of umbels per plant and grain yield by sowing coriander on 3rd and 18th November than the crop sown on 3rd December. Sharma and Israel (1991) noticed that final plant height and number of branches per plant, umbels per plant and seeds per umbel decreased with the delayed sowing, and the highest values of 134.9 cm, 17.9, 32.9, 112.5 and 46.9 were, respectively obtained with the earliest sowing dates.
In West Bengal, the maximum plant height, number of branches and umbels per plant and grain yield was obtained when the coriander was sown on 1st November, however, the grain yield decreased gradually as the sowing was delayed.
Similarly, Reddy et al. (1993) reported that the crop sown on 20th October produced taller plants, had more branches per plant, and produced the highest yield of stems (16.3 g) and seeds per plant (2.9 g) compared with crop sown in November under conditions of Andhra Pradesh. Seeds per umbel were relatively constant and umbels per plant were usually in the range of 11 to 12.
An increased incidence of powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni) was observed on coriander crop with the delay in sowing from 16th October to early December, and with each 15 day delay in sowing after 22-25 October in Rajasthan the aphid population increased from 224 to 226 per plant and grain yield reduced from 1.75 to 2.01 q/ha and a population of 55-70 aphids per five plants during flowering could reduce the yield by 50%, thus, in areas of high pest infestation, the crop should be sown from the last week of October to the 1st week of November, and the crop should be protected from aphids just before flowering.
Baswana et al. (1989) found that fruit borer infestation increased significantly with delayed sowing, and observed the highest infestation (13.5 and 23.4%, respectively) in crop sown on 29th December 1983 and 1984.
Use of an improved variety seed with high germination percentage is of paramount importance for obtaining higher yield. Coriander is generally grown as a sole crop, however, sometimes grown as an intercrop. The quantity of seed required for a unit area depends on soil fertility, irrigation facilities, growing region, and the purpose for which the crop is being raised. Seed rate of coriander is much higher in north India than in south India due to differential climatic conditions.
A substantially higher seed rate depending on regular or bunch sowing of seeds within the rows is used when the crop is grown for leaf purpose. Similarly, in south India where the plants are uprooted at 2-4 true leaf stage for greens purpose a higher seed rate is followed. A seed crop is sown at wider spacing, thus, relatively a small quantity of seed is required.
A seed rate of 12-18 kg/ha has been found optimum for raising a pure crop (Anonymous, 1989) and 5-6 kg/ha for mixed crop. Singh et al. (1979) obtained over six quintal per hectare seed yield of coriander when used seed @ 10 kg/ha. Singh et al. (1987) recommended a seed rate of 15 kg/ha for early (October 30) and 20 kg/ha late sowing (November 10 and 20), however, for too delayed sowings (November 30) relatively a higher seed rate (25 kg/ha) was found better.
Using a seed rate of 12 kg/ha Malavia et al. (1989) obtained higher seed yield. A plant density required for obtaining highest biomass and seed yield was higher in wet year than in dry year. The best sowing rate for promoting seed yield was 14 kg/ha and the yield of straw increased with increasing sowing rates, however, Reddy and Rolston (1999) noticed no significant difference in seed yield of sowing rates from 20 to 40 kg/ha but reduced both at a seed rate of 10 and 50 kg/ha.
While studying the effect of seed exudates containing inhibitors on germination of coriander seeds Chaturvedi and Muralia (1976) found that exudates generally delayed the germination and even inhibited the root and hypocotyl growth of 16 days old seedlings, thus, leaching out of these inhibitors from seeds by soaking in water followed by drying hastened the germination. Soaking seeds for 6 h in water and ageing naturally Mandal et al. (1987) obtained 80% germination in coriander as against 15% in control.
The seeds soaked in water for 12-24 h before sowing and dried in shade for 12 h germinate bit earlier than the seeds without soaking. Soaking of seeds in tepid water, IAA 10 ppm, NAA 20 ppm or in GA3 50 ppm increases, percent germination and greens yield, and wrapping of such soaked seeds in polyethylene film or in sunny bags for 24 h before sowing increased the percent germination and yield.
The maximum percent germination was observed in seeds soaked in 50 ppm GA3 and wrapped in gunny bag cloth followed by seeds soaked in 20 ppm NAA and wrapped in gunny bag cloth wrapping.
According to Sahoo and Swain (1994), seeds of coriander require pre-soaking for 36 h so that the kernel could be separated from the pericarp. Vasugi and Thangaraj (1998) found that soaking of coriander seeds for 16 h at 25°C temperature in 2% aqueous extracts of mature leaves of Calotropic gigantica and 2% Prosopis juliflora gave the highest percentage germination (86%) and vigour index (1978) as compared with the untreated control (66% and 1509, respectively).
Rana et al. (2002) observed the maximum field emergence (71.37%) of coriander when seeds were soaked in water followed by seed soaked in 100 ppm GA3 (70.29%) and NAA (68%).
The seed before sowing must also be treated with any of the fungicides, like Captan, Captafol, Foltaf, Thiram, Ziram, and Agrosan GN @ 2.5 g/kg of seed against damping off disease. Ali et al. (1998) recorded the highest yield (24.66 q/ha) from coriander when seeds were treated with Thiram followed by thiophanate-methyl (22.64 q/ha) and Captafol (22.57 q/ha) and lowest yield (17.99 q/ha) in control.
Jeliazkova et al. (1997) stated that the seed irradiated with 500-1500 rads using Cobalt-60 as a γ-irradiation source produced plants yielding 14-25% higher seed yield, and the highest seed yield was obtained at a dose of 1000 rads.
Coriander is propagated by seed, botanically called schizocarp fruit. A single coriander fruit contains two mericarps, which are separated before sowing by exerting slight pressure with roller since split seeds germinate better than the intact ones.
Splitting of fruits prior to sowing also reduces the cost but produces no adverse effect on seed yield, seed size, and chemical composition of essential oil. Based on research reports it has been concluded that 15- 30 day old dry seeds give better and early germination than the freshly harvested mature seeds.
The crop is usually sown by broadcasting followed by raking of soil with the help of country plough or tractor drawn cultivator for covering the seeds to a little, however, line sowing that facilitates intercultural operations and harvesting of greens is better over broadcasting method, especially under rain-fed conditions. For greens, coriander is sown at a spacing of 25-30 cm line- to-line and 5-10 cm plant-to-plant keeping a depth of 1.5-2.0 and 4-6 cm under irrigated and rain fed conditions, respectively.
In northern India for greens purpose as an intercrop of tomato or cauliflower the hill or bunch sowing method is also practiced by the farmers. Ram and Kumar (1998) noticed that spice crops intercropped with geranium showed greater yield advantages in terms of main crop equivalent yield of essential oil compared with that of geranium monoculture.
Coriander sowings in lines at 30 cm spacing gave the maximum plant spread and the highest number of secondary branches and umbels per plant. Bhati (1988) reported that the number of branches per plant increased significantly with the increase in row spacing form 20 to 40 cm, while Baswana et al. (1989) found no effect of row spacing on growth characters in Haryana.
Nehra et al. (1996) recorded the maximum plant height of coriander at closer spacing of 20 x 20 cm, while branches and umbels per plant were higher at 30 x 20 cm. Malav and Yadav (1997) found that plant height and the number of nodes on main shoot decreased as the row spacing increased, however, number of green leaves per plant, number of branches per plant, fresh and dry weights and number of days to flowering were highest at a row spacing of 40 cm. Reddy and Rolston (1999) reported that the seeds per umbel declined with increasing plant density within the row.
In highly fertile soils with assured irrigations, a row spacing of 40 cm is desirable, unless 30 cm row spacing is optimum for good seed yield of coriander, while Pareek and Sethi (1985) harvested the highest seed yield of coriander at a row spacing of 45 cm. The coriander crop should be sown at 30 cm row spacing for obtaining maximum seed yield as suggested by Bhati (1988), Sukhadia et al. (1986), and Malavia et al. (1989).
Baswana et al. (1989) obtained a maximum coriander seed yield of 10 and 12.5 q/ha in two seasons when the crop was sown at a spacing of 20 x 20 cm, however, Anonymous (1989) found a spacing of 30×30 cm ideal for coriander seed crop. A spacing of 30 x 10 cm found to be suitable for getting higher seed yield of coriander.
Seed yield was significantly higher at 30 cm row spacing than at 20 and 40 cm. Nehra et al. (1997) harvested highest seed yield of coriander cv. Pant Haritima and Narnaul Selection following a spacing of 30 x 20 cm. Reddy and Rolston (1999) noted that seed yield did not differ between row spacing of 15 and 30 cm for a lighter Templeton soil or 30 and 45 cm for a heavier Wakanui soil but reduced at a row spacing of 60 cm for both the soil types.
7. Manurial Requirement
for Coriander Cultivation:
Coriander crop needs nutrients for its growth and development in lesser amount, hence, it is grown usually without supplementation of nutrients, even though, for obtaining good quality greens a well-composted farmyard manure 10-15 and 15-20 t/ha in heavy and light soils with low organic matter, respectively may be applied at the time of land preparation and mixed thoroughly into the growing medium, especially in soils having too light/heavy texture.
Incorporation of farmyard manure prior to sowing improves the coriander yield significantly, however, brings about no improvement in essential oil content.
Substantial results in respect to greens cuttings can also be obtained by supplementing essential macronutrients through fertilizers in early stages of crop growth.
Full dose of phosphorus and potash and one third of nitrogen should be applied before sowing as basal dose, and the remaining two third of nitrogen should preferably be given 30 and 70 days after sowing in two equal halves since the nitrogen recovery by coriander, which is very poor, could be increased by management practices such as split application, use of nitrification inhibitors and slow release of fertilizers, and combinations of inorganic and organic sources of nitrogen.
Dry matter yield per plant at 123 days after sowing increased linearly with increasing rates of nitrogen up to 60 kg/ha, thereafter, the increase was not significant. Similarly, Ughreja and Chundawat (1992) observed that the increase in nitrogen rates from 0 to 60 kg/ha resulted in increased plant height and straw yield in coriander.
From a study on fertilizer requirement cum cutting management Thakral et al. (1992) found that the green leaf yield of coriander cv. Narnaul Selection was highest (48.41 q/ha) with nitrogen 90 kg/ha and three cuttings (65.29 q/ha), however, the highest cost benefit ratio was obtained with nitrogen 60 kg/ha and one cut of green leaves, and similar results were obtained by Datta et al. (2004) in West Bengal.
Malav and Yadav (1997) reported that the growth and yield components of coriander increased with increasing nitrogen levels up to 120 kg/ha, however, Rangappa et al. (1997) stated that nitrogen applications in excess of 100 kg/ha did not result in increased foliage yield.
Singh and Bisen (1999) noticed that plant height, plant dry weight, seed yield and 500 seed weight increased with the increase in nitrogen application. According to Desai et al. (2000) maximum growth, dry matter and green yield (25.3 q/ha) can be obtained from the residual effects of nitrogen 120 kg/ha (half through vermicompost and half through urea) applied to winter wheat + nitrogen 20 kg/ha applied to coriander taken as a catch crop.
No response of coriander was observed to phosphorus application, while Bhati et al. (1984) and Ghosh et al. (1985) observed significant response of coriander to phosphorus application. Jamuna et al. (1991) observed that nitrogen content in plant decreased and phosphorus and potash contents increased significantly over control with increasing levels of phosphorus in soil from zero to 80 kg/ha.
Application of nitrogen 20 kg, phosphorus 30 kg and potash 20 kg has also been recommended for good crop of coriander in rain fed areas under Rajasthan conditions, whereas, for irrigated crop nitrogen may be given @ 60 kg/ha. Rao and Reddy (1984) recommended a fertilizer dose of nitrogen 20-30 kg, phosphorus 40 kg and potash 20 kg/ha as basal dose at the time of last ploughing under unirrigated conditions of Andhra Pradesh. According to Subramanian et al. (2003), the Rabi crop recorded 27% higher yield than the Kharif crop when N, P, and K were applied at 30, 40 and 20 kg/ha, respectively.
Application of vermicompost 10-15 t/ha significantly increased the concentration of Fe and Mn in leaves, and Zn content was highest with vermicompost 5 t/ha. Similarly, Vadiraj et al. (1998) observed that application of vermicompost significantly increased herbage yield, which was comparable to applying chemical fertilizers, and the herbage yield was greatest in cv. RCr-41 (60.7 q/ha) at 60 days after sowing when vermicompost was applied 15 t/ha. Micronutrients like zinc at 5 ppm and copper at 0.25% were found useful in increasing coriander yield.
The trace elements in coriander leaves generally increased up to 40 days, and thereafter, declined and declined too with higher rates of vermicompost. Khattab and Omer (1999) observed that plant growth and yield were significantly increased following foliar spray with 100 ppm Pholaz-D (containing Fe, Zn, and Mn) and the highest values were recorded with 200 ppm, however, further increase in micronutrients concentration (300 and 400 ppm) decreased these parameters. Calcium application was found particularly beneficial for dry matter production.
8. Irrigation Requirement
for Coriander Cultivation:
Irrigation requirement of coriander depends on soil types and weather conditions of the growing region. Depending on soil temperature the seeds take about 12-15 days to germinate, hence, coriander initially requires enough moisture for good germination and better stand of crop. Coriander can be cultivated without irrigation as rain fed crop, however, the crop with assured irrigations grows faster and gives more cuttings, resulting higher greens yield.
If the moisture in field at the time of sowing is not enough or crust is formed due to rain just after sowing, a light irrigation soon after sowing or formation of crust is required to obtain good germination, and subsequent irrigations are given as per requirement of the crop. In seed crop, flower initiation and seed development are the most critical stages for irrigation so it is essential to maintain sufficient soil moisture at these stages for getting higher yield since moisture stress at these stages reduces the yield drastically.
The black cotton soils can retain moisture longer than rest of the soils, thus, in black cotton soil coriander can be grown successfully without irrigation, whereas, in light soils the crop requires 2-3 irrigations under south Indian and 3-4 irrigations under north Indian conditions.
First and second irrigations are applied 30-35 and 60-70 days after sowing, third 90-100 days after sowing when the seeds start forming and forth at seed development stage, however, Sharma and Sharma (2004) reported that the coriander crop after germination requires 4-5 irrigations first 30- 35, second 60-70, third 80-90, fourth 100-105 and fifth 110-150 days after sowing, and overall the coriander crop requires 490 mm irrigation water in entire cropping season.
The significantly higher growth and yield parameters were obtained with the increase in irrigation intensity by applying irrigation at 30, 60, 90 and 120 days after sowing. The Kharif crop, being rain fed, requires no irrigation but the Rabi crop is irrigated at an interval of 12-15 days, and depending upon soil type and climatic conditions a seed crop requires total 7-9 irrigations.
9. Intercultural Operation
of Coriander:
Coriander, generally, takes 12-15 days for germination under optimum conditions, and the crop in early stages due to slow growth may not compete with weeds for nutrients, moisture, space and light, thus, first hoeing and weeding 30-35 days after sowing is done essentially to remove the weeds and to improve soil aeration, which provides better conditions to the roots for their growth. Depending on weed infestation, the second and third hoeings are normally done at an interval of 30 days.
The major objectives of hoeing and weeding are to diminish competition between crop plants and weeds, to provide better aeration into the soil and to conserve moisture into the soil for longer time.
Sometimes due to drop of seeds in tufts or better germination, the seedlings may be overcrowded so removal of excess seedlings is essential to maintain proper distance between plants within rows. Thinning is usually done 30-40 days after sowing when the plants are large enough to handle. Coriander yield reduction due to weed competition has been estimated 72.8 to 74.6% by Thakral et al. (1989).
Chaudhary (1994) observed maximum seed yield reduction of coriander in weedy check owing to maximum crop-weed competition. Morales- Payan et al. (1999) noticed that the relative crowding coefficient 40 days after sowing showed both the species Coriandrum sativum and Cyperus rotundus as equally aggressive at 50 : 50 proportion with nitrogen 0 or 36 kg/ha, however, when the nitrogen level was increased to 72 or 108 kg/ha the competitiveness of Cyperus rotundus was enhanced about 15 times than Coriandrum sativum.
Based on work of six countries Chaladek and Janyska (1972) recommended Afalon (linuron) at 1.5 kg ha-1 and Gasagard 50 (prometryne) at 2.0 kg ha-1 for controlling weeds in coriander. The weedicides fluchloralin 0.9 kg and oxadiazon 0.75 kg/ha may be used as pre-emergence for higher yield of coriander, however, oxadiazon gave the highest weed control efficiency (98%) and net returns.
Application of pendimethalin 0.75 kg and fluchloralin 1 kg/ ha controlled the weeds 76.5 and 71.9%, respectively, however, application of oxadiazon 3.0 kg/ha as pre-emergence found to be the most economical to control weeds in coriander crop.
While testing four weedicides, alachlor, fluchloralin, pendimethalin and methabenzthiazuron, as pre-emergence in comparison of manual weeding Thakral et al. (1989) found all the weedicides effective to control the weeds in coriander crop but found fluchloralin and pendimethalin 1.5 kg/ha equally superior to other weedicides and recorded seed yield close to manual weed control.
Singh et al. (2001) conducted a field experiment with coriander cv. Hisar Anand and found that application of pendimethalin 1.5 kg ha-1 as pre- emergence gave good weed control and maximum seed yield. Chemical control of weeds with pre-plant application of weedicide Fluchloralin 0.75 kg/ha or a pre-emergent application of Oxyfluorfen 0.15 kg/ha or pendimethalin 1 kg/ha dissolved in 400-500 litres of water is very effective.
iii. Use of Plant Growth Regulators:
Coriander, being andromonoecious plant, bears male and bisexual flowers on separate positions. Soaking of seeds in 50 ppm solution of ascorbic acid produced highest frequency of bisexual flowers (93.91%). Using growth substances, the male: bisexual flowers ratio can be altered. Sprays of growth regulators (MH, FW450, or IBA) lowered the male : perfect (hermaphrodite) flowers ratio in coriander.
While studying the influence of plant growth substances on sex expression in coriander Amruthavalli (1978) observed that the GA3 100 ppm sprayed at five leaf stage increased the number of male flowers, whereas, ethrel and CCC at same concentration suppressed the production of male flowers, and found the ratio of bisexual to male flowers highest with CCC 100 ppm (1 : 0.79) followed by ethrel 100 ppm (1 : 0.96) as compared with untreated control (1 : 1.20).
Spray of GA3 25 ppm increased the flower number and strengthened the male tendency in Bulgarian coriander, while BA produced effects opposite to GA3, however, Prakash and Kumar (1984) found that soaking of seeds in 50 ppm IAA solution influenced the morphology of umbels, sexual status of flowers, and gave the highest number of flowers. In coriander, Rana et al. (2002) recorded the maximum plant height with the spray of GA3 50 ppm, however, the spray of CCC at 40 days after sowing resulted in maximum number of branches, umbels per plant, and seed yield.
Spraying of 5 ppm Mixtalol (aliphatic alcohol) enhanced the plant growth, umbels per plant and hermaphrodite flowers per umbel, improved sex ratio (hermaphrodite : staminate) and chlorophyll content of leaves and produced 23 and 12% more seed yield and 12 and 9% more Stover yield compared with water spray and 10 ppm of this chemical, respectively.
Two subsequent sprays of Mixtalol at two and four leaf stages exhibited better plant growth, umbels per plant and hermaphrodite flowers per umbel, improved sex ratio and chlorophyll content of leaves and recorded more seed and Stover yield than those sprayed only once at either of these stages (Lai et al., 1996). Soil drenching with 5 ppm Mixtalol (Triacontanol) at two and four leaf stages resulted in highest flowering and seed filling in coriander.
10. Harvesting
and Yielding of Coriander:
Harvesting of greens or seed crop depends upon variety, soil types, and growing season and locality. In seed crop, the green leaves are normally harvested 60-75 days after sowing, and thereafter, the crop is left for flowering and seed production, however, coriander crop grown exclusively for green leaves is harvested 35-40 days after sowing, and subsequent harvesting of greens is done depending upon the size of leaves demanded in the market.
The leaves are cut with sharp knife to avoid tissues maceration and decaying of cut ends. The compound leaves after cleaning and trimming along with stems are tied in bunches of desirable size for easy handling and marketing.
For green coriander seeds, the crop is harvested bit early when the grains have attained full size but still green, and dried under shade for retaining green colour. Coriander crop for seed usually matures in about 100-150 days of sowing depending upon varieties and climate. Early sown crop matures late due to an extended vegetative phase, while the crop raised in Kharif season in southern parts of India matures earlier than Rabi season crop.
Harvesting should be done at proper stage since over ripening results in deterioration of quality, predominantly due to loss of essential volatile oil responsible for odor and color of fruits, whereas, harvesting at immature stage results in poor yield and unpleasant fruit odor, which is undesirable at all. Unnecessary delay in harvesting should be avoided since it also causes shattering and splitting of seeds.
Keeping the market preference in view, the crop may be harvested when 60% of the seeds turn to straw yellow color or when the seeds of the main umbel turn from green to lightly brownish yellow. The maximum seed yield can be obtained when harvesting is done 28 days after peak flowering, thereafter it starts declining due to shattering. In order to avoid seed shattering it is always advisable to harvest the crop early in the morning since the plants before sunrise are little moist due to occurrence of dew in night.
Harvesting is done by cutting the whole plant from the base with sickle and piled into small stacks in field for 2-3 days to dry the plants properly, though the harvested plants should always be dried under shade to avoid discoloration of seed, loss of essential oil, and seed breakage. Beating the umbel portion of plants gently with wooden sticks on threshing floor separates the grains, and thereafter, cleaned by winnowing and dried in partial shade before storage since the high moisture content spoils the quality during storage.
The greens and seed yield of coriander-crop depends on variety, soil, climatic conditions of growing region and cultural practices followed during crop period. Age of plants at harvest significantly influences the greens yield. European cultivars give higher yield and essential oil content than the Indian cultivars. In southern parts of India, the Rabi crop gives better seed yield in comparison to Kharif crop.
Coriander crop on an average gives a seed yield of 5-6 and 6-10 q/ha under rain fed and irrigated conditions, respectively, however, some improved varieties under favorable conditions can give a yield of about 18-20 q/ha. Bhati et al. (1988) reported that highest green leaf yield (6.5 q/ha), seed yield (5.59 q/ha) and gross returns were obtained from cv. UD-334 followed by CO-2 and UD-354.
The crop grown exclusively for leaf purpose yielded green leaf yield of 48.41 q/ha with three cuttings. Rangappa et al. (1997) stated that the cultivar C 1410 produced the highest foliage yield, which was obtained 52 days after sowing for summer crop (June to September) and 73 days after sowing for autumn crop (August to November). Higher biomass yield was observed following early sowing (in June) compared with later sowing (in July), and the number of umbels and seeds per plant decreased quadratically with plant density.
In a cutting management trial, Singh et al. (2000) obtained green leaf yield of 76 q/ha from two cuttings with additional seed yield of 8.36 q/ha and the reduction in seed yield due to cutting effect was recorded 27%. In comparative yield trials of different varieties in All India Coordinated Research Project on spices under irrigated conditions, the seed yield of coriander at Hisar station has been recorded as high as 20-23 q/ha.
Coriander is grown for fresh green leaves and seed too so the post-harvest management is done as per the crop for which that is being grown. The fresh greens consisting tender leaves and stems are cut 4-5 cm above the ground level. The yellow, damaged, and diseased leaves are trimmed off and weeds are separated.
The healthy and disease free leaves are tied into small bunches for convenience in handling, transportation and marketing. Coriander leaves for use in off-season are sun-dried or dehydrated in a suitable dehydrator. The dried leaf coarse powder is used for flavoring various foodstuffs.
The fresh coriander leaves because of having very high moisture content are highly perishable and deteriorates rapidly at temperature above 5°C, hence, should be consumed soon after harvest. Its leaves after harvesting cannot be kept fresh for more than 24 hour at ambient room temperature, however, they can relatively be stored for a week at low temperature (0°C) and high relative humidity (90-95%).
On the contrary, high temperature, low humidity, and brisk air movement often result in quick wilting of coriander leaves, which make them unattractive and leads to great loss of ascorbic acid.
Bulk packaging in perforated polyethylene lined cartons markedly reduced the water loss but was not effective in retarding yellowing and decay of coriander leaf at a temperature of 4-15°C, however, packaging of coriander leaf in non-perforated polyethylene lined cartons resulted in a marked retardation of both yellowing and decays, and the beneficial effect of modified atmosphere produced in non-perforated polyethylene liner in delaying senescence could be improved further by combining with vacuum pre-cooling.
Retardation of yellowing and decaying was attributed mainly to the accumulation of respiratory CO2 within the package rather than to the depletion of O2. Thus, chlorophyll degradation of the coriander leaves was delayed effectively when 5% CO2 in air was applied in a flow through the system.
The senescence retarding effect of elevated CO2 concentrations in green herbs can be attributed mainly to the ability of CO2 to antagonize ethylene action. Loaiza and Cantwell (1997) stated that respiration rate in freshly harvested coriander leaves was moderately high (CO2 produced @ 15-20 µl g-1h-1) and ethylene production rate was low (< 0.2 ηl g-1h-1) at 5°C.
Waskar et al. (1998) observed that physiological loss in weight was lower in packed (polyethylene bags of 200 gauge and 2% ventilation) than in unpacked samples of coriander and was lowest in cold storage (8°C temperature and 90-92% relative humidity) followed by cool chamber (14.45-22.62°C temperature and 90- 95% relative humidity).
Gomez et al. (1999) found that the quality parameters of leaves such as appearance, aroma, and colour decreased with the increase in storage temperature. Storage at 4°C is recommended for preserving quality for one week, although weight loss after 8 day was approximately 50% at this temperature.
11. Cultivated Varieties
of Coriander:
A coriander cultivar with high leaf and reasonable grain yield is more beneficial to the growers.
A brief description of important characters of the improved cultivars developed and released by various State Agricultural Universities and Research Centers for particular localities is given as under:
A bold seeded multi-branched variety developed at CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar bears larger size greenish yellow fruits in comparison to local coriander. It can give one greens cutting without any adverse effect on seed yield. On an average, it gives a seed yield of 15-20 q/ha.
A dual-purpose medium late variety developed at CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar was released at national level in 1995. Plants are multi-branched and bushy in growth habit. The stem colour is light purple, which later changes to light green at flowering. It produces large size umbels, bearing bold and higher number of seeds. At maturity, the fruits are yellowish green in colour. It gives a seed yield of 20.0-22.5 q/ha.
A dual-purpose high yielding variety developed at CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar has wider adaptability to different soil conditions. On an average, it gives a seed yield of 14 quintal per hectare.
A dual-purpose variety with resistance against stem gall developed at CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar belongs to medium maturity group and bears oval shape fruits with attractive yellow colour. The average seed yield of 14 q/ha can be obtained.
A dual-purpose high yielding variety tolerant to stem gall disease developed at G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar bears fragrant leaves. Plants are erect, tall growing and multi-branched in growth habit. It is a fine and small seeded variety with late maturity, and gives on an average seed yield of 15-20 quintal per hectare.
A variety developed at Sukhadia University S.K.N. College of Agriculture, Jobner in 1988 through recurrent selection based on progeny testing in local collections from Kota district of Rajasthan under All India Coordinated Spices and Cashew nut Improvement Project and tested under the name of UD-41 (Udaipur Dhania 41) is recommended for irrigated areas of Rajasthan.
This small and round seeded high yielding variety with 0.25% oil content has better market value than bold seeded varieties. The plants of this variety are tall, erect with main stem relatively thicker and light to deep violet in color. The variety is found to be highly resistant against wilt and stem gall disease even in sick plots. Its average yield is 9-14 q/ha but under favorable conditions yield can be obtained as high as 18-20 q/ha in duration of 130-140 days.
A variety with moderate resistance against wilt and stem gall developed at Rajasthan Agricultural University Campus, Jobner belongs to medium maturity group and bears bold grains. It is suitable for irrigated cropping system. An average yield of 12 q/ha can be obtained in crop duration of 130 days.
A variety moderately tolerant to powdery mildew, wilt, and stem gall developed at S.K.N. College of Agriculture of Rajasthan Agricultural University, Jobner is suitable for cultivation as rain fed crop under limited moisture conditions. Plants are bushy and spreading with medium height and produce large-size oval grains. It matures in 120 days, and gives an average seed yield of 9 quintal per hectare.
A small-seeded variety highly resistant to stem gall and wilt but moderately tolerant to powdery mildew developed at S.K.N. College of Agriculture of Rajasthan Agricultural University, Jobner is suitable for cultivation in irrigated areas. Plants are tall with erect growth habit. It gives an average yield of 9.2 q/ha in crop duration of 130-140 days.
A medium maturing group variety moderately resistant to root knot nematode and powdery mildew developed at S.K.N. College of Agriculture of Rajasthan Agricultural University, Jobner is adapted to high fertility under irrigated conditions. Plants are erect and bushy with quick early growth, and grains are medium-sized. On an average, it gives a yield of 10 q/ha in crop duration of 135 days.
A bold-seeded early maturing variety moderately resistant to root knot nematode and less susceptible to aphid developed at S.K.N. College of Agriculture of Rajasthan Agricultural University, Jobner is suitable for cultivation as rain fed crop in heavy soils of Rajasthan. Plants are semi-dwarf and bushy with early and quick growth habit. It matures in 90-100 days and gives a seed yield of 11 quintal per hectare under limited moisture conditions.
A bold seeded medium maturing group variety resistant to stem gall developed at S.K.N. College of Agriculture of Rajasthan Agricultural University, Jobner is suitable for cultivation under irrigated cropping system. On an average, it gives a seed yield of 10 q/ha in crop duration of 130 days.
A long duration dual-purpose variety resistant to stem gall and tolerant to powdery mildew developed at National Research Centre on Seed Spices, Ajmer is suitable for cultivation under irrigated conditions, and also suitable for growing as greens during off-season. Plants are tall with erect growth habit, and seeds are round in shape, medium to small in size, essential oil content up to 0.6% and suitable for export. Its average seed yield is 12.5 quintal per hectare.
A bold seeded high yielding variety with medium plant growth and moderate tolerance against wilt and powdery mildew developed at Gujarat Agricultural University Spices Research Centre, Jagudan bears medium-size round and greenish yellow colour grains and is suitable for cultivation as early crop under irrigated conditions. It is also recommended for cultivation under rain fed conditions of Gujarat and Rajasthan. Its plants are erect with more number of branches per plant. It yields 11 q/ha grains in crop duration of 112 days.
A bold seeded, high yielding grain purpose variety moderately tolerant to wilt and powdery mildew developed at Gujarat Agricultural University through a mass selection from the germplasm material collected from its main Spices Research Station, Jagudan is suitable for early sowing under un-irrigated conditions.
This variety responds well to normal dose of fertilizers and is well adapted to all coriander-growing areas of Gujarat. The plants with more number of secondary branches, dark green dense foliage, fistular stem with no lodging growth habit are semi-spreading and bear large size umbels and medium-size bold grains. Its average grain yield is 15 q/ha with volatile oil content 0.4% in crop duration of 110-115 days.
An early maturing high yielding variety resistant to stem gall and moderately resistant to wilt, aphids and weevil developed at Rajendra Agricultural University Regional Research Station (Dholi) Bihar is suitable for intercropping under Bihar conditions due to medium-size plants with semi-erect growth habit. The fruits are fine, round, aromatic and free from the attack of fruit fly. It is rich in essential oil and gives a grain yield of 12-14 q/ha in crop duration of 100 days.
A medium tall variety with high yielding potential developed at Rajendra Agricultural University Regional Research Station (Dholi) Bihar is resistant to stem gall, moderately resistant to wilt, aphid, weevil and tolerant to fruit fly. On an average, it gives a grain yield of 12 q/ha in crop duration of 110 days.
A dual-purpose early maturing variety tolerant to white fly and mites under field conditions developed at Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Regional Agricultural Research Station, Lam (Guntur) through mass selection from a material collected from Alur, district Kurnool (AP) can withstand moisture stress, thus, is most suitable for cultivation in rain-fed areas In Andhra Pradesh.
This variety is similar to cv. LAM CS-2 in growth, and its plants are semi-erect with high yielding capacity and grains are bold, oval, and straw-colored. Under irrigated conditions, it can yield 70-75% higher than local varieties. It has essential oil content 0.35%, fixed oil 9.2% and free fatty acid 2.4%, and yields 14-15 q/ha in duration of 105-115 days.
An early maturing high yielding variety with field tolerance to fruit fly developed at Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University Regional Agricultural Research Station, Lam (Guntur) through mass selection from a material collected from Nandyal, district Kurnool (Andhra Pradesh) is suitable for rain fed conditions and late sowings.
Plants are semi-erect, medium in height, and bushy in growth habit. Being an early maturing it escapes powdery mildew disease and yields 8- 12 quintals per hectare seeds with essential oil content 0.3%, fixed oil 9.6%, and free fatty acid 2.3% in crop duration of about 80-90 days.
A high yielding variety tolerant to pests and diseases as compared to local varieties developed at Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University Regional Agricultural Research Station, Lam (Guntur) through mass selection is most suitable for grain purpose and recommended for cultivation in Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Gujarat. Plants are bush type and medium tall (80 cm) with more number of branches, and the oil content in seeds is 0.4%. Its average seed yield is 13-14 q/ha in cropping duration of 110 days.
A dwarf variety with more foliage of good flavor developed at Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University Regional Agricultural Research Station, Lam (Guntur) through selection from north Indian germplasm is well acclimatized to the conditions of Andhra Pradesh. The seeds of this variety are high in essential oil content (0.3-0.48%). The average seed yield of this variety is 9 quintal per hectare.
A bold seeded short duration variety with field tolerance to wilt and grain mould developed at Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University Regional Agricultural Research Station, Lam (Guntur) following a recurrent selection from CS-6 is adapted to rain-fed tracts, thus, suitable for cultivation under both rain-fed and irrigated conditions of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The seeds are medium-sized, oblong, and straw colored. On an average, it gives a grain yield of 6.0 q/ha in crop duration of about 78-97 days.
A medium duration fine seeded variety rich in oil and tolerant to aphids, wilt and powdery mildew developed at Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University Regional Agricultural Research Station, Lam (Guntur) is suitable for intercropping, and rain fed farming system. Plants are dwarf bearing medium-bold, oval, straw-colored grains. On an average, it gives a seed yield of 10 q/ha in 102 days cropping period.
A new promising fine seeded variety with taller growth habit developed and introduced through mass selection from Bulgarian collections is late maturing. The grain yield of this variety is three times higher and essential oil content about seven times higher than the local varieties.
It gives a seed yield of 20-21 q/ha as compared with 7.5 q/ha from the local variety in cropping duration of 180-210 days under Madhya Pradesh conditions. It has an oil content of 1.3% as against 0.18% in local variety, giving 27.52 kg/ha of oil as compared with 1.35 kg/ha from local variety. The cv. Cimpo S-33 proved itself the outstanding.
A medium seed sized variety high in oil content is recommended for cultivation in Madhya Pradesh region. This long duration variety takes 140-160 days from sowing to maturity. The seed yield of this variety is 10-12 quintal per hectare.
A dual-purpose variety tolerant to grain mould developed at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore in 1981 is suitable for cultivation under both irrigated and rain-fed conditions of Tamil Nadu since its water requirement is low. Plants are tall in growth habit, produce number of umbels per plant, and grains are small-sized, globular in shape, and dusty brown in color. It gives a grain yield of 5 q/ha in crop duration of about 110 days.