The following points highlight the four main classification of animal nutrients. The classifications are:- 1. Carbohydrates 2. Lipids 3. Fatty Acids 4. Proteins.
1. Classification According to Carbohydrates:
Carbohydrate is classified according to the following flow chart:
2. Classification According to Lipids:
The term ‘Lipid’ refers to any compound that is soluble in ether or benzene or in chloroform but only sparingly soluble in water.
Fats are esters of glycerol that are solid at room temperature while oils are glycerol esters that are liquid at body temperature. 98% of animal lipid is fat. Waxes are esters of fatty acids with alcohols other than glycerol. Ration for adult ruminants should contain no more than 3-5% Fat and 15-20% fat for non-ruminants.
The classification of lipids on the basis of chemical nature of individual lipids:
(a) Simple lipids – Fats, oils and waxes are simple lipid’s fats and oils are esters of fatty acids with glycerol and waxes are esters of fatty acids with alcohols other than glycerol.
(b) Compound lipids – These are esters of fatty acids containing groups in addition to an alcohol and fatty acids. They include phospholipids are fats containing phosphoric acid.
(c) Derived lipids – Derived lipids include substance derived from the previous groups as in serial 1 and 2 above by hydrolysis that is, fatty acids, glycerols and other alcohols.
(d) Miscellaneous lipids Such as sterols which are lipids with complex phenanthrene type ring structures.
3. Classification According to Fatty Acids:
Fatty acids are integral parts of lipids and may be divided into:
Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds in the chain. Their general formula is-
Various saturated fatty acids given below:
(ii) Unsaturated Fatty Acids:
Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bond.
Various unsaturated fatty acids given below:
4. Classification According to Proteins:
The term ‘Protein’ is taken from the Greek word proteus.
The term ‘Protein’ suggested by Mulder in 1840, who clearly recognised that protein was necessary for life in a more fundamental way than could be attributed to either carbohydrate or lipid.
Animal body contains about 3% minerals, which are constituents of animal tissues.
In animal body, there are about 30-40 mineral elements which occur largely in the various parts of their body.
Minerals are very necessary for body growth milk production and other activities. Over 80% of the total mineral matter is found in the skeleton, giving strength and rigidity to the bones and teeth, the remaining mineral elements occur in the tissues and in the blood.
Minerals are necessary in the animal body in general for the following reasons:
Minerals help in the formation of new bones and tissues in growing animals. Bones and teeth are high in mineral matter. For the formation of hair, hoofs, horn. A small amount is present in all soft tissue, which quantitatively may be small, but are vital for life processing. Blood cells also contain a small amount of minerals for the normal functioning of blood cells.
(b) Minerals Act as Body Regulations:
Minerals help in the maintenance of proper osmotic pressure in the body fluids, neutrality of the blood and lymph and maintain a proper physiological balance between the various mineral ingredients in the blood and also for digestion.
To make good, loses of minerals secreted in the milk in milking animals.
Cow’s milk contains 5.8% ash or mineral matter on a dry basis. The descriptions of various mineral elements are given below.
Calcium element is present in the larger amount in the body than any other cations. 99% of the body calcium occurs in the skeleton and teeth, the remaining 1% are vital for any normal animal body.
Legumes like alfalfa, sterilised bone meal and milk products are major source of calcium.
Deficiency Symptoms of Calcium:
These are as follows:
a. Reduction in milk yield.
b. Thin shelled eggs with poor hatchability.
c. Milk fever in parturient can be due to sudden depletion of calcium.
These are as follows:
a. Bone formation including teeth and growth.
b. Clotting of blood.
c. Maintenance of acid base equilibrium.
d. Regulation of heartbeat and working of muscle.
Phosphorus is found in every cell of the body but most of the phosphorus is combined with calcium in the bones and teeth.
Grains, grain by products, concentrates like oil cakes, brans, milk product are the major source of phosphorus.
Deficiency Symptoms of Phosphorus:
These deficiency symptoms are:
a. Phosphorus is required for bone formation a deficiency can cause rickets or osteomalacia.
b. Pica or depraved appetite has been noted in cattle when there is a deficiency of phosphorus.
c. In chronic phosphorus deficiency animals may have stiff joints and muscular weakness.
These are as follows:
a. Constituents of bone and teeth.
b. The oxidation of carbohydrate leading to the formation of ATP also requires phosphorus.
c. The constituent of the high energy compound ATP and thus is necessary for energy transductions essential for all cellular activity.
d. Phospholipids are constituents of all cellular membranes and are active determinants of cellular permeability.
Potassium is the staple cation of the intra-cellular fluid and plays a very important part along with sodium, chloride and bicarbonate ions.
Legumes like alfalfa barus, wheat germ meat contains potassium.
Deficiency Symptoms of Potassium:
The deficiency symptoms are:
a. Weakness of the respiratory muscle
b. Weak extremities
c. Poor intestinal tone with poor intestinal distension.
These are as follows:
a. Nerve transmission.
b. Maintenance of osmotic pressure.
c. Maintenance of acid-base equilibrium.
d. Heart beat relaxation.
e. It also aids in the uptake of certain amino acids by the cell.
The sodium concentration within the cells is relatively low, the element being replaced largely by potassium and magnesium.
All animal products, especially meat meals and foods of marine origin are richer sources.
Deficiency Symptoms of Sodium:
The deficiency symptoms are:
a. Nervous disorder
b. Growth failure and reduces the utilisation of digested protein and energy.
c. Vascular disturbances
d. In hens, egg production is adversely affected as well as growth.
e. Dehydration
f. Corneal keratinisation
Function of Sodium:
These are as follows:
a. Maintains body fluid pH.
b. Regulates body fluid volume.
c. Takes active part in nerve functions and muscle contraction.
d. Functions in the permeability and carrier of the cells.
Sulphur is present in all cells of the body. Primarily, in the cell, protein contains amino acids, cystine and methionine etc.
The main sources of sulphur for the body are the two sulphur containing amino acids such as cystine, cysteine.
Deficiency Symptoms of Sulphur:
The deficiency symptoms are:
The deficiency of the sulphur element is not usually considered in the body but the symptoms of sulphur deficiency is the same as deficiency of proteins.
These are as follows:
(a) It maintains of the skin, hair, nails, hoofs, etc. and helps to give strength, shape and hardness of the protein tissues.
(b) It performs a number of functions in enzyme reactions and protein synthesis.
(c) It is believed to be involved in the detoxification of aromatic compounds within animal body.
Approximately 70% of the total magnesium is found in the skeleton. The remaining amount is distributed in the soft tissues and fluids.
Green fodder, bran, pericarp of cereal grains, cotton seed cake and linseed cake are good sources of magnesium.
Deficiency Symptoms of Magnesium:
Magnesium deficiency in adult ruminants a condition known as hypomagnesaemic tetany. Associated with low blood levels of magnesium.
These are as follows:
a. This is the essential element for bone formation.
b. Another function of the magnesium is activates enzymes like phosphatases and the phosphorylation reaction involving ATP.
c. Controls the irritability of neuromuscular system.
Approximately 65% of the total body iron is present in the form of haemoglobin.
Various sources of iron like green leafy materials, most leguminous plants and seed coats are well sources.
The deficiency symptoms are:
a. By the deficiency of iron decrease growth rate.
b. Skin colour may be redden.
c. The deficiency of iron is effect the formation of haemoglobin compound.
a. For transport of oxygen to the tissue
b. For maintenance of oxidative enzyme system within the tissue cells.
c. It is also concerned in melanin formation
Zinc has been found in every tissue in the animal body.
Sources:
The chief sources are wheat meal, sunflower seed oil meal, fish meal, etc.
The deficiency symptoms are:
a. Growth retarded.
b. Disorders of the feathers and hair coat.
c. Skin disease increase with the deficiency of zinc.
d. Disorders of bones increase. Function of Zinc
These are as follows:
a. It is a needed for body’s defensive (immune) system to properly work.
b. It plays a role in cell growth, wound healing and breakdown of carbohydrates.
c. It is involved in different metabolic function such as keratinisation processes, lymphocytes proliferation, synthesis of proteins and vitamins and helps in the proper function of organs.
Even copper is very essential for the body and various functions in the body like for haemoglobin formation.
Sources:
Nuts, seeds, wheat brans, molasses are good sources of copper.
Deficiency Symptoms of Copper:
The deficiency symptoms are:
a. Bone defects in grazing cattle and sheep on copper deficient.
b. Severe diarrhea has been observed in many parts of the world by the deficiency of copper.
c. In sheep, copper deficiency produces a lack of black wooled sheep and characteristic less of ‘crimp’ form the fibres of all wool.
A vitamin is an organic compound, which is present in normal food in minute amounts.
Vitamins are essential for development of normal tissue and for normal health, growth and maintenance. When vitamins are absent in the diet or not properly utilised, causes a specific deficiency disease or syndrome. It cannot be synthesised by the host and therefore must be obtained either from the diet or from the microorganisms of the intestinal tract.
The vitamins are generally divided into two major groups.
Fat soluble which is usually found associated with the lipids of natural foods include vitamins-A, D, E and K and water soluble vitamins ; in which include vitamin B complex and vitamin-C.
The members of this group are soluble in fat solvents such as chloroform, diethyl ether, petroleum ether, etc. They are found in nature closely associated with those tissues that tend to store fats and oils.
Vitamin-A was identified by Stechback.
Vitamin-A is dietary essential for all animals. Vitamin-A does not occur in plants as such but it occurs as its precursor carotene. Carotene is known as pro-vitamin-A as it is converted into vitamin-A inside the body.
Vitamin-A also known as retinol or retinel or retinoic acid.
All green Leafy materials green forage, good quality hay are the good sources. The amounts of vitamin-A or retinol in feed stuffs are often quoted in International Unit (IU) One IU of Vitamin-A is equal to 0.34 μg retinoal 0.6 μg beta-carotene.
Various symptoms occurred in cattle and pigs like skin conditions, xerophthalmia through the deficiency of vitamin-A. Poultry also affected by deficiency of vitamin-A such as retarded growth, high mortality. It is also responsible for the normal development of bones as it controls the activity of the osteoblast and osteoclasts of the epithelial cartilage.
Even vitamin-D fat soluble. It is also known as anthracitic factor as it prevents rachitis.
Rickets is caused due to lack of normal classification so, that vitamin-D is necessary for normal classification. The disease rachitis, now commonly called rickets. Vitamin-D is also involved to facilitate the clearance of phosphate in the kidney.
Vitamin-D is widely distributed in animal kingdom. It is abundant in fish liver oil.
Fresh green alfalfa forage has zero vitamin-D value whereas Sun cured hay contain on an average 200 IU per 100 gms.
(a) In older animals vitamin-D deficiency causes osteomalacia, where there is reabsorption of bone already laid down.
(b)In young animals vitamin-D deficiency results in rickets and retarded growth.
(c) In poultry, a deficiency of vitamin-D causes the bones and beak to become soft and rubbery; growth is usually retarded and the legs may become bowed.
Mattil and Conklin (1920) indicated that rats fed on a milk diet supplemented with yeast and iron were unable to bear young.
In 1922, Bishop and Evans announced the existence of a factor X in certain foods for normal rat reproduction.
In the year 1936, Evans and his colleagues isolated pure vitamin-E from the unsaponifiable fraction of wheat-germ oil. The active substance was later termed by Evans as ‘Vitamin-E and now atleast eight compounds with E activity are known to occur in a variety of plant and animal tissues. These are called tocopherols.
Vitamin-E acts as an antioxidant in the cellular level. Thus, e.g., it prevents the oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids, mostly present in all cell wall components. It also participates in normal tissue respiration and involved in the synthesis of ascorbic acid and co-enzyme and in the metabolism of nucleic acid (DNA) probably by regulating the incorporation of pyrimidines into the nucleic acid structure and sulphur amino acid.
Vitamin-E is widely distributed in livestock feed. It is found abundantly in whole cereal grains mainly in the germ and therefore in the byproducts containing the germ.
Leafy materials, green forage, good quality hay are very good sources.
Alfalfa is very good sources of vitamin-E.
Deficiency Symptoms:
Most animals fail to reproduce due to deficiency of vitamin-E
Vitamin-K was identified in 1935 by Henirk Dam as a factor present in green leaves which prevented a hemorrhagic syndrome observed in chicks.
Vitamin-K is an essential metabolite for humans and for farm animals. It helps in the formation of prothrombin which is necessary for normal blood coagulation.
All green leaf plant materials, (dry or fresh) are rich sources of the vitamin-K.
a. The deficiency of this factor (vitamin-K) lowers the prothrombin content of the blood.
b. Prothrombin formation takes place in liver which is assisted by vitamin-K.
c. The prolongation of clotting time of the blood is due to lack of vitamin-K.
Ascorbic acid was first isolated by Szent Gyorgyi (1928) from orange juice, cabbage juice and adrenal cortex; he named the compound hexuronic acid in recognition of the six carbon atom in the molecule.
Vitamin-C is chemically known as L-ascorbic acid. It is highly soluble in water and slightly soluble in alcohol. Present in all tissues with the highest concentrations in the adrenal and pituitary glands and lower levels in the liver, spleen and brain.
Vitamin-C is essential for the collagen formation. It aids for the conversion of folic acid to its active form tetrahydrofolic acid. It is also involved in the hydroxylation of proline, lysine and aniline which are important for normal physiology of the animal.
Citrus fruits, tomatoes, green leafy vegetables, potatoes and certain other fruits and vegetables are the good sources of vitamin-C.
Deficiency symptoms for animals are unknown for monkey and guinea pigs. A deficiency of this vitamin has been found to produce a disease known as scurvy which is characterised by Swollen, bleeding and ulcerated gums, loosening of teeth, weak bones and fragility of capillaries resulting in haemorrhages throughout the body.
In 1926, Jansen and Donath, successor of Eijkman succeeded in crystalising vitamin-B1 in pure form. The identification of the structure of the vitamin and its synthesis was accomplished in 1936 by Williams and co-workers in the same laboratory.
Sources:
Thiamine has widespread distribution in food but some foods are richest sources of this vitamin. In cereal grains, most of the thiamine is in the outer grains, layers. Green leafy vegetables bean, pea etc., are good sources. Animal products rich in thiamine include egg yolk, liver, kidney etc.
Deficiency Symptoms:
The deficiency of thiamine in humans occurs first as a numberness of the legs, later with pain in the calf muscle, severe exhaustion, finally emaciation and paralysis.
The patient has difficulty in breathing; there is an abnormal enlargement of the right side of the heart and a decrease in the rate of the heartbeat.
Symptoms in animals termed polyneuritis are particularly characterised by unthriftiness are paralysis convulsions and in birds like pigeons, chicks etc.
(iii) Vitamin-B2 (Riboflavin):
This is the IInd member of the vitamin-B complex. This is the sparingly soluble in water but differ from thiamine in being comparatively stable to heat. Riboflavin was synthesised independently by Kuhn etal. (1935) at Heidelberg. Riboflavin in the form of Flavin Mononucleotides (FMN) and Flavin Adinine Dinucleotide (FAD) acts as the prosthetic group of several enzymes involved in biological oxidation reduction reactions.
Sources:
Riboflavin is widely distributed throughout the plant and animal kingdoms. Milk, liver, kidney and heart are excellent sources; many vegetables are also very good sources.
Deficiency Symptoms:
The most characteristic symptom of riboflavin deficiency in chicks is leg paralysis or curled toe paralysis and other common symptoms are diarrhoea, low egg production and poor hatchability in laying birds. In swine, the symptoms are stiffened limbs, thickened skin, skin eruptions, lens opacities and cataract and exudate form the back and side.
(iv) Vitamin-B3 or B5 Niacin (Nicotinic Acid):
An important disease known as pellagra, which was responsible for thousands of lives annually was caused due to the deficiency of nicotinic acid.
Sources:
Cereals and its byproducts except corn are good sources. Groundnut oil is an excellent source. Alfalfa and other leafy material are fair sources. Milk, coffee, yeasts are also good sources.
Deficiency Symptoms:
In pigs, loss of weight, diarrhea, vomiting, dermatitis and normocytic anaemia are common symptoms.
Nicotinic acid is also a dietary essential for adult fouel. In chickens its deficiency is accompanied by poor growth, mouth symptoms, somewhat similar to that of black tongue in dogs.
(v) Vitamin-B6 (Pyridoxine):
The vitamin was isolated by Keristezy (1938) and the synthesis of the vitamin was accomplished by Harris and Folkers in US.
Sources:
Good sources of vitamin include yeast and certain seeds such as wheat and maize, liver and green leafy vegetables.
Deficiency Symptoms:
In chicks, a deficiency causes acute convulsion, flatter on pan, usually starts kicking and generally die. In adult birds with mild deficiency hatchability and egg production are reduced. In rat, characteristic skin lesion appears in the peripheral parts of the body such as paws, nose, ears, tails etc.
(vi) Biotin (Vitamin-H or B7):
Biotin is a relatively simple monocarboxylic acid, biotin is very slightly soluble in water and alcohol.
Sources:
Richest sources of biotin, are royal jelly, liver, yeast, molasses peanuts and eggs most fresh vegetables are fairly good sources.
Deficiency Symptoms:
In chicks, biotin deficiency results in dermatitis similar to that occurring in pantothenic acid deficiency.
By the deficiency of biotin, various disease occurred like muscle pains, slight anaemia, anorexia, insomnia etc.
(vii) Vitamin-B12 (Cyanocobalamin):
Vitamin-B12 has been isolated in several different biologically active forms.
Vitamin-B12 anti-anaemia factor may play an important role in preventing and curing pernicious anaemia. It is a growth factor for chickens, rats, turkey and pigs, children are also affected in case of rat. Studies have shown that under certain conditions the vitamin is required for reproduction lactation as well as for growth. It is believed to be synthesised in rumen by sheep and cattle.
Sources:
Liver is the richest sources (natural sources). Alfalfa, pasture grass etc., also very good source of vitamin-B12.
Deficiency Symptoms:
Deficiency of vitamin-B12 results into sore, red tongue, yellowing of skin, Walking problems and anaemic symptoms etc.